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nass pa. is 

Book__B-3 



GRAMMATOGRAPHY 



__ 






MANUAL OF REFERENCE 



ALPHABETS OF ANCIENT AND MODERN 

LANGUAGES . 



BASED ON THE GEliMAN COMPILATION 



3 X> 



01 



1'. IIAI.LIIDIIN. 




LONDON 
TRUBNER AND CO., 60, PATERNOSTER ROW. 

1861. 



i 



1, 



s> 



■> 



1> 



PREFACE 



The Grammatography is offered to the Public as a compendious introduction to 
the reading of the most important ancient and modern languages. Simple in 
its design, it will be consulted with advantage by the Philological Student, the 
Aniateur Linguist, the Bookseller, the Corrector of the Press, and the diligent 
Compositor. 

Although substantially based on " Ballhorn's Alphabete," a German com- 
pilation, which, in the space of a few years, passed through nine editions, the 
present manual has in several articles been very considerably improved and 
enlarged. Of the new observations which have been inserted, some may prove 
useful even when this work shall be consulted by the side of the respective 
Grammars. With regard to the Asiatic Alphabete, it may be stated, thai the 
continued efforts to obtain trustworthy specimens have, in 6ome instances, led 
to highly satisfactory results. In preparing the type of the Chinese characters, 
the lateral "Tones" have been adjoined to the 21 1 symbols of pronunciation. 
These additions will enable the student, instructed by native teachers, to re- 
member with greater facility the varying articulation of vowel-sounds. 

The publishers entertain the hope, that the present work, an humble attempt 
to assist in the furtherance of philological pursuits, will obtain the encouraging 
consideration of competent scholars, whose suggestions, available for future 
editions, are respectfully solicited. 



ALPHABETICAL INDEX. 



Afghan (or Pushto) 




28 


Amharic .... 


23, 


24, 25 


Anglo-Saxon 




73 


Arabic .... 




20,21 


Arabic Ligatures 




21, 22 


Aramaeic 




. 9 


Archaic Characters 




8,9 


Armenian 




. 53 


Assyrian Cuneiform 




7 


Bengali .... 




. 45 


Bohemian (Czechian) . 




67,68 


Biigis .... 




. 45 


Burmese 




41 


Canarese (or Carnataca) . 




. 42 


Chinese 


30, 31 


32,33 


Coptic .... 




. 29 


Croato-Glagolitic . 




60 


Cufic .... 




. 9 


Cyrillic (or Old Slavonic) 




58 


Czechian (or Bohemian) 




67,68 


Danish 




71 


Demotic 




. 8 


Estrangelo . 




9 


Ethiopic 


23 


, 24, 25 


Etruscan 




9 


Georgian 




. 54 


German 




70 


Glagolitic 




. 59 


Gothic 




74 


Greek .... 




. 55 


Greek Ligatures . 




56 


Greek (Archaic) 




. 9 


Gujerati (or Guzerattee) 




43 


Hieratic .... 




. 8 


Hieroglyphics 




8 


Hebrew 


10 


, 11, 12 


Hebrew (Archaic) 




8 


Hebrew (Rabbinical) 




. 13 



Hebrew (Judseo- German) 

Hebrew (Current hand) . 

Hungarian . 

Illyrian .... 

Irish .... 

Italian (Old-) . 

Japanese 

Javanese 

Lettish 

Mantshu 

Median Cuneiform 

Modern Greek (or Romaic) 

Mongolian . 

Numidian 

Old- Slavonic (or Cyrillic) 

Palmyrenian . 

Persian 

Persian Cuneiform . 

Phoenician . 

Polish .... 

Pushto (or Afghan) 

Romaic (or Modern Greek) 

Russian 

Runes . . . 

Samaritan . 

Sanscrit 

Servian 

Slavonic (Old-) 

Sorbian (or Wendish) 

Swedish 

Syriac 

Tamil .... 

Telugu . 

Tibetan .... 

Turkish 

Wallachian . 

Wendish (or Sorbian) 

Zend .... 



46, 



Page 
13 

. 14 

68 

. 63 

73 

. 9 

34 

47,48 

69 

50,51 

6 

. 57 

52 

. 8 

58 

. 9 

27 

. 5 

8 

. 65 

28 

. 57 

61,62 

75,76 

15 

37,38 

63 

. 58 

66 

. 72 

16, 17, 18, 19 

39, 40 

44 



35, 36, 



64 
66 
41 



PERSIAN CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS. 

There are two main families of Cuneiform Characters which, before the expedition of 
Alexander the Great, were in use nearly in all Asiatic Countries, subjected to the (Acha?- 
nienides) Persian Kings. One of these, the Arian arrow-headed, is here given, and is 
a pure alphabet of fixed characters, which was made use of by the old Persians, proper, 
and is now read with tolerable accuracy. The other, however, not yet deciphered with 
sufficient certainty, was employed, with some modifications, by at least five different nations, 
the Babylonians, the Assyrians, the Medo-Scythians (the second in the triglot inscriptions 
of Persepolis and Bisutun), the Susians and the Armenians. Almost in each of these five 
sorts of characters can be distinguished three styles, the Archaic, the Lapidary, and the Cursive. 



Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


TTT 


a 


sTyT 


t 


y<£ 


111 before i 


Z 


8 (8h) 


11 


i 


W£ 


I before i 


£<- 


1)1 before u 


Ml 


z 


<?T 


u 


m- 


t before u 


£< 


11 


-y< 




fc 


k 


T<! 


th 


?<- 


3 


<E< 


h 


<y 


q 


?? 


(1 


£T 


• 


TT 


thr (tr) 


«TT 


kh 


<£T 


(Hi 


-« 


r' 


T< 


rp, q 


<TT- 


g 


YT 


P 


ft 


f 


SJ 


d, h 


<c£ 


gh 


T« 


. f 


-T£ 


v 


«< 


b,u,m,i 


W- 


k' 


Mf 


b 


y£ 


8(8) 


A 


point for 

separating 

words. 


-<£ 


g 1 


HM 


m 











MEDIAN CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS 


Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


H 


a 


^y 


t 


MMf 


phi 


2<y- 


VO 


-m 


a 


n-yy 


ta 


►►YY 


y 


y* 


S 


^ 


i 


^ 


ti 


-yy< 


yu 




sa 


i 


i 


-< 


tu 


-yyy 


yo 


:§y 


• 
su 


! .< 


u 


:§y^ 


th 


-3k 


r 


^yy 


s' 


yy*- 

yy^ 


u 


yn 


thi 


^YYY 


ra 


YY 

Y 


s'a 




q 


-sy 


thu 


-yyy< 


ri 


<y- 


s'i 


tT2 


qu 


art 


P 


»- Y 


ru 


y^ 


z 


► ::► 


k 


st 


pa 


* 


l'O 


« 


za 


*y 


ka 


^y- 


Pi 


JSJ 


hi 


Y 

YY 


h 


yyy^ 


ku 


^yy- 


pe 


<^ 


fi 


►► 
►► 


ha 


■te 


kh 


y^ 


pu 


5: 


fe 


■** 


n 


<yy^ 


kha 


►y 


ph 


fcn 


V 


<r 


ni 


►< 


khu 


hi 


pha 


►►yy 
►►yy 


VII 


^ 


in 



ASSYRIAN CUNEIFORM CHARACTERS 


Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


Form Value 


t>4 


L 
1 




ch 


>y 

It 


> 11 




) 

^ r 


►► 
££ 


j 


*y 


t 


* 


j-. 




! 


A* 


/ a, ya 


£T 


\ 


*i 


I 


IT- 




TJ 


!» 


^y 




H 




i! 


> r rsh 


tz 


i 


HHfK 


I t, s 


^y 


1 


<M 


) 


<H 


g, kh 


si! 


1 


& 


[ ds, z, 

i dshorj 


V 

w 


\ s 


£y<y 


) 


^iyy 




si 


J 


1M$ 




t<! 


d 


^ 


!-, 


>v 




>y- 


1 

\ ■ 


HI! 


\ 


i- 


i 


^y 




vy- 


, 


B 


h 


-<— 


i. y 


^y 


I k 


i- 


1 


JUtU 

all] 
Tl 1 1 


lui, v, y 


3TY 


i, ii 




1 


*h 


\ sh 


It 


) 


^y; 


y 


?i 




5r<y 


> oil 


+<y 


/ 

u 
i 


ny 


J 


SJ 




*-r-V 

W-1 


1 


SIT 


\ 


ny 




s^TyT 


1 


#£3 


I 


A! 


o 


ei 


\ 


w 




> 


1 


& 


v, h, a, r 


^ 


111, V 


>ff<y 


! 

1 




a, z 


r<r< 


j 


-a 


j 


b=i 


1 


-& 


nue 


r,y< 
r<y 

yy< 


ch 


* 

•> 


f 

> n 

j 


5 


1 

1 




) 
vush 

i 



OLDEST CHARACTERS 


Arrangement 


Hieroglyphics 


Hieratic 


Demotic 


Phoenician 


Numidian 


Early -Hebrew 


K Aleph 


? 


f 




f -* 




f 


3 Beth 


▼ 


D 


XJ. 


*> 9 





* e 


1 Gimel 


r 






7 1 




i 1 


1 Daleth 


i 


-H" 




4 ^ . 


1 


^ 4 


H He 


CJI 


Gl 


? 


3 


f> 


5 


1 Vav 


$ 


f 




7 ^7 




^ 


t Zayin 


\ 


~1 




7. 




* 


— 


. v- 


t_ 










— 


a 


A. 


A 






• • • 


n Cheth 


n 


ft 




ft * 


))) 


B 


B Teth 


* 




J 


© 


U 


. . . 


•> Yodh 


u 


*T 


iX 


"» rn 


• • • 


1-X 


3 Kaph 


*- 


*—< 


*-^ 


*t*n 


oy 


id 


^ Lamedh 


AAAAA 


A 


> 


LLK 


/ 


L 


ft Mem 


AAAAA 


HJ 


±z 


w 1 


*i 


3 


3 Nun 


^ 


i? 




1 1 


) 


y 


D Samek 


L 


ii 


X. 


Wi Hf 


t 




J? Ayin 


©! 


v o 


1. 


U 





o O 


S Pe 


? 


> 


> 


1 


) 


7 


2 Tsadhe 


M 






r r 




w\, 


D Q'oph 


^ 


h 


, u 


V V 


i7 


7>P 


7 Resh 


A 


R 


Cv 


1 4 


1 


<M 


ttf Shin 


... 


w\ 


tvv. 


14J y sp 




W vj 


n Tav 


¥ 


. . . 


. . . 


h * 


Xt 


Xt 


*i 


V 


J 


5 


.... 




• • 



OLDEST CHARACTERS 


Aramaic Estrangelo 


Palmyrenian 


Kufic 


Old-Hellenic 


Old -Italic 


Etrurian 


x * 


nl 


^K<Y 


I 


A 


4 ^ /\ 


.fl A j 


D 


n 


3 


J 


i & 


a& 




A 


\ 


A 


d 


(TV\ 


( 7 ) 


S A ) 


1 


*? 


"I 


h 


A 7 f:, 


A <] *■ 


4 B b 


1\ 


<P 


X 


A A 


3 ^ 


3^E 


HK)) 

0)l< k ' g 


> 1 


a 


1 1 


3 


Fk 


H =1F 


+ * \* A 


1 


V 


I 


, J 


/ 


/ ~L 


ntp d 1 




\ 




e_ 


H 


3 


3 3 e 








s 


E| 




8 f 


h 


^k 


Ji 


6 


B H 


a h 


e h 





4 


G 


L 


G 


© 9 


i i 


X ^ 


r 


> D 


j 


? 2 


yi 


J±%l ) 


7 


^r 


3 3 


k 


» k 


» K 


^j i 

A J ' 


U L 


X 


& 


J 


1 IH 


J £ 


m m j 


<n 


^ 


3 


■o 


/w /v 


kH 


M^i m 


*i / 


r 1 


-S 


J 


N 


7 A/ 


M 11 

A4 r~ f 


i 


M 


^3b 


I s 


t i 


T 


*1 1 > 11 

"1 1 ' 


u 


-1 


^ 


c 





© 


e© . 


1 


A 


^> J 


J 


1 


1 r 


G O [o 


r 


J£-T 


* 


J* 


7. 


* 


3 3 ^ p, b 


PT 


JZL 


ft 


3 


g $ 


C) A 


<1 V / 


H i 


"l 


T H A 


J 


<) 4 


A P 


. S D ) r 


V 


X 


V 


^ ! 


aa aa 


M 


8 S ^ s 


/>/> 


V 


* 


j 


<A T 


-v + 


Y u 








a 


V Y i 


V 


V v, u 



10 

HEBREW 









Pronun- 


Numer.- 






Form 


Name 


ciation 


value 


NOTES. 








Spiritus lems 




The Hebrew Alphabet, like all Semitic al- 


N 




Alepli 


1 


phabets, consists only of consonants, 22 in 


2 




Beth 


b bh 


2 


number, -some of which, however, have also 




the force of vowels. Hebrew is read from right 


* 




Gimel 


g gb 


3 


to left. Because at the end of the lines, words 




cannot be divided, the following dilatable cha- 


1 




Daleth 


d dh 


4 


racters (dilatab'des) were employed to help to 










justify, or fill up the lines: but now the prac- 


n 




He 


h 


5 


tice is all but obsolete. 


i 




Vav 
Zayin 


w 

S soft 


6 

7 


£3 m H> m n t< 






1 










CONSONANTS. 


n 




Cheth 


ch 


8 


Nates on Pronunciation. 










$ is the softest guttural, an emission of the 


tO 




Teth 


t 


9 


breath scarcely to be heard, the Spiritus 
lenis of the Greeks, similar to r», but much 


* 




Yodh 


J 


10 


softer. 


2 


final | 


Kaph 


k kli 


20 


fj before a vowel, is our aspirated h (the Spi- 
ritus asper of the Greeks): but after a 


£ 




Lamedh 


1 


30 


vowel, at the end of a syllable, it is a 










guttural, and, at the end of words, it 


D, 


final Q 


Mem 


m 


40 


often supplies the place of a vowel. 




final 1 


Nun 


n 


50 


V* 1 ) is a guttural g, accompanied by a gra- 
ting or rattling sound ; 2) a softer breathing- 


D 


1 


Samek 


s 


60 


like s. In reading and transcribing hebrew 










words, it is now usual to omit " and s. 


V 




Avin 


guttural 


70 


e. g. ^y Eli. 










p] is the harshest guttural, like the German 


s, 


final £1 


Pe 


P Ph 


80 


ch as pronounced by the Swiss, or the 










Spanish x and j. 


s, 


final V 


Tsadhe 


ss 


90 


*) is pronounced in Hebrew more like a ratt- 


P 


Q'oph 




100 


ling guttural, than as a pure lingual, and 




q 


partakes of both sounds. 


i 




Resh 


r 


200 


*£} and ^* were originally but one and the 










same letter, as they still are when written 






Sin 


s 




without points : but as in some words this 








300 


letter had a softer sound, similar to s, 


# 




Shin 


Sll 




this two-fold pronunciation is distinguished 
by the grammarians by the diacritical point : 


n 




Tav 


t til 


400 


'£• (sh) and : ~ (s). 




Final -R 


'aph 




* is the English z. 




with Sliva TT wit 


i Q'amets " 


t 


£2, p * u *d ^ are strongly articulated sounds. 




with Daghesh an 


I Q'amets " 




produced by a compression of the lower 
organs of the mouth: the two first, therefore. 












LIGATU 


RES. 














differ essentially from r and r which are 




"n or £ = - ; ^« 






equivalent to our t and k, and are often 




* = *? 


fr$, also ii 


istead of a - '" 


-'?N 


aspirated. 



11 



The six consonants r£2-;s have a two- 
fold pronunciation : 1 ) a harder and more slen- 
der sound (tenuis), like our b g d k p t, and 
2) a smoother sound accompanied by a soft 
aspiration. The harder sound is the primeval : 
it occurs at the beginning of words and syl- 
lables without a vowel preceding immediately. 
and is indicated by a point (Dughesh lene) in 
those six consonants. They are aspirated after 
a vowel immediately preceding: in manu- 
scripts this is indicated by the Raphe ("), but 
in printed books the aspiration is shown by 
the absence of the Daghesh. 

CLASSIFICATION OF THE CONSONANTS. 

a) According to the organs of speech by which 

they are pronounced: 

1) gutturals (f/uttura/ea) ~ v n s 

2) palatals (pulatinae) p r ; ■ 

3) Unguals (tinyuales) *j r - and • V 

4) dentals (dentales) + & z i 
.">) labials (labiates) r z a - 

The 1 partakes of the 1. and :j. class 

b) According to their sound: 

1) aspirated consonants (aspirantes): r.yrs 

2) soft consonants (molten )\ 1 i < ^ 1 1 i < I ^ i jai, 
semivowels i * 

3) sibilants (sibUantes): 3E V • 

4) mutes (mutae): rrr;: and p B 

VOWEL 

That the scale of the five vowels a r i o oo 
i> derived from the three primitive rowels i 
i oo, is to be seen much more distinctly in the 
Hebrew and the other Semitic languages than 
in other languages. The ,-■ has been funned 
by ,i |- i, the o by a -\ oo, and. properly speak- 
ing, both are contracted diphthongs: e ai, 
6 = an. — The full rowels formed by this 
process are the following, arranged according 
to the three principal rowels and bO their pro- 
sodical quantity : 

Vowel a (S) 

-=- (Tamers, a fi 

-zr~ Patach , a. 

Vowel e -1 C) 

*-tt- Tsere (with Ybdh), e 

1_ — Chireq (magnum), t 
-7T" Tsere (without Yodh), v (e) 
.. Seghol, g, e (the latter is also 
written *—%-) 
—r- Chireq (parvum), j (i). 

Vowel o-oo C\) 

*\ Cholem (magnum), 6 

*) Shureq, fi 
— ^_ Cholem (parvum), o (6) 
-=r- Q'amets-chafuph. 6 
— Q'ibbuts, oo (66). 



The vowels, or vowel-points, are placed 
1 under the consonants after which they are 

pronounced (- ra); but the Patach, placed 
| under a guttural at the end of a word, is pro- 
i nounced before this guttural, -t ruach, in 
, which case it is named Patach furtivum. The 
i Cholem (without Vav) is placed above the 

consonant on the leftside: ~ro. The figure * 
' is to In' pronounced sometimes oe, the : being 
I ponsonant , and the — preceding it: sometimes 
! t'O, the Cholem being read after the Vav. It 

is more accurate to distinguish thus: 1 oo, i 
' co, ' o: likewise also ', (Shureq) and » (Vav 
j with Daghesh). As, however, -. (Shureq) is 

readily discernible, because a vowel neither 

can precede nor follow it, only this form is 

made use of. 



In opposition to the vowels 



—j— Shva (Sh e va) indicated 
full and distinct vowel. 



the absence 
Therefore 



if a 



1) placed under a consonant concluding a 
syllable, it indicates the complete absence 
id* a vowel and serves to divide the pre- 
ceding .syllable from the following (ShFva 
qitiescens). It is not made use of, how- 
ever, when the consonant concluding the 
syllable at the same time concludes the 
word, except in the ease of the Final 
Qoph -). and those words ending in two 
consonants, when each of them is to be 
furnished with a Sh*va, e. g. --: 

2) itrepresentsa slight and indistinctvowel, 
as it were only the onset or beginning 
of a vowel (Shfva mobile). 

The ShPva mobile is pronounced somewhat 
more clear and distinct in the SO called Cha- 
teph - vowels (Eltsn rapidum ), joining a short 
vowel to the Sh e va simplex] in opposition to 
which it is also named Sh e vu compositum. There 
an' three Chatephs : 

— Chateph Patach. half a 
-.— Chateph -Seghol , half e 
-^r- Chateph - Qamets . half o. 



READING- SIGNS. 

There are some reading-signs which have 
(dose connexion with the vowels and probably 
were introduced at the same time. Amongst 
these is to be noticed the diacritical point of 
37 and V. Meeting together with the Cholem 
(— ), only one point is made use of which re- 
presents both: therefore -"is to be pronounced 
SO, if no other vowel -point is added : and osh, 
when the preceding consonant is unpointed, 
e. g. vivo sdhe', ~v;;: mosheh. 

More frequently we see a point placed in 
the consonant to indicate in general a harder 
pronunciation. Tfcere are three eases to be 
distinguished, viz.: 



12 



Da ghesh forte, doubling the consonants. 

Daghesh lene, hardening the consonant; it 
stands only in the six mutae: nssisa in 
the above named cases ; otherwise the point 
occurring in these consonants must be a Da- 
ghesh forte. 

Mappiq, indicates that those consonants, 
which are also used as vowels , are then to 
be pronounced as consonants ; in modern 
printing it is made use of only in the W at 
the end of the words. 
In opposition to the point hardening the 

consonant, a little stroke standing above the 

consonant indicates his softer sound. This 

stroke called 

Raphe (") is now almost out of use, and is 
only employed in order to indicate express- 
ly the absence of a Daghesh or Mappiq. 

ACCENTS. 

The general design of the accents is to indi- 
cate the rhythmical members of the verses in 
the Old Testament. In doing this , they per- 
form a twofold duty; for the accents mark at 
one and the same time partly the logical re- 
lation of each word to the whole sentence, 
and partly the accented syllable of each single 
word. In the first case the accents supply the 
punctuation, in the latter they are signs of 
tone. — As signs of tone, the different accents 
are equivalent, because there is in Hebrew 
only one kind of accentuation. In most words, 
the last syllable is accented, more rarely the 
last but one. — As signs of punctuation , their 
use is more complicated, because they not 
only separate words , like our points , commas 
and colons, but also join one to the other. 
Therefore they are divided in Distinctivi and 
Conjunctivi. In the following list they are ar- 
ranged not according to their grammatical 
value, but according to their being placed 
below the consonants or above them, in order 
to give a more facile view of them. 

ACCENTS PLACED UNDER CONSONANTS. 
, Silluq only at the end of the verse, there- 
fore always joined with : Soph-pasuq, 
which stands between the single verses. 

A Athnach, mostly in the midst of a verse 
< Yethibh ( always to the left of the vowel). 
y Tebhir 

Tiphcha initiale 
j Merkha 

Double -Merkha 
j Munach 

Mahpakh (to the right of the vowel) 
s Darga 
v Yarach 
, Tiphcha finale. 



ACCENTS PLACED ABOVE CONSONANTS. 

••• Segholta 

: Zaqeph-qaton 
'■ Zaqeph-gadhol 

' Rebhia 

~ Zarqa 

Qadma 

1 Pashta 

j Shalshelet 

tJ Paser 
v Qarne-phara 

p Great-Telisha 

* Little -Telisha 

' Garesh 

" Double- Garesh. 

ACCENTS CONSISTING OF TWO PARTS BELONG- 
ING TOGETHER, THE ONE ABOVE, AND THE 
OTHER BELOW CONSONANTS. 

— — Merkha mahpakhatum 

■r 

- — Merkha sarqatum 

■r 

Mahpakh sarqatum. 



t Soph-pasuq, separating verses. 
I Pesiq, between the. words. 
- Maqqeph, hyphen, aloft, between the words, 
i Metheg, sign of tone (to the left of the 
vowel). 

NUMERALS. 
There are no numerical ciphers in Hebrew ; 
but consonants are used instead of them. The 
units are expressed by s — B, the tens by • — u, 
100— 400 by |p— P. The numbers 500—900 
sometimes are expressed by the five final letters 
-[500 Q 600 j 700 PJ800 y 900, 

sometimes by r = 400 with addition of the 
other hundreds-, e. g. pr = 500. In compound 
numbers, the greater is placed first, e. g. x- 
11, ssp 121. The number 15 is written with 
ita (9 + 6), instead of !T», because the name 
of God trap begins with these letters: and for 
the same reason, 16 is written te instead of v. 
The thousands are expressed by the units. 
superscribing two points , e. g. s 1000. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 
' A stroke aloft to the left of the consonant. 
e. g. 's, denotes that this consonant serves 



side of the last con- 
. 'ca ( = rt-nott) it 



as a numeral. By the 
sonant of a word , e. 
marks an abbreviation. 
Two strokes above a word, e. g. rs, indi- 
cate that each of these letters stands for a 
separate word abbreviated. 

or * in copies of the Hebrew Bible refer to 
the readings placed in the margin or at the 
foot of the page. The first is of Masoretic. 
and the other is of modern origin. 



13 



RABBINIC 


GERMAN-RABBINIC 


Form 


Name 


Pronunciation 


Form 


Pronunciation 


h 


Aleph 


Spiritus lenis 


h 


a 


3 


Beth 
Giniel 


bh b 
gh g 


a 

2 

* 


b 

v f 
g 


1 


Daleth 


dh d 


i 


d 




1 

f 

n 

15 


He 
Vav 

Zayin 
Cheth 
Teth 


h 

s 

('h guttural 

t 


n 

ii 
i 
n 


h 

V U 

w 

s 

cch 

t 

i j e short 


i 


Yodh 


y 


D, final "[ 


(' 


J, final "J 

s 


Kapfa 
Lamedh 


ch k 

1 


i 

M , final p 


ch 

1 

111 


)), final C 


Mem 


m 


>, final | 


11 


;, final ] 

D 
1? 


Nun 

Sainek 

Ayin 


n 

s 
guttural 


D 

1) 

D, final ^ 

D 


s ss 

e lon K 

p 

ph pf v 


5 j fi»al C] 
5, final J 


Pe 
Tsadhe 


ph ]> 

z 


3 , final [* 
P 


z tz 
k ck q 
r 


P 


Q'oph 


k 


D 


s sh 


r 


Resh 

Shin Sin 
Tav 


r 

sli s 
th t 


n 
n 


t 
tt 


n 


DIPHTHC 

>m au, " ei, **| e 


)NGS. 

11, >| tl german. 



14 



HEBREW RUNNING-HAND 



Form 


Name 


Pronun- 
ciation 


Numerical 
value 


Ligatures 




Polish 


German | 




ll " 


A 


Aleph 


K a 


1 






a. 


S 


Beth 


2 b 


2 


-GP = J» 


1)0 




< 


Gimel 
Daleth 


3 g 


3 

4 


ff - nn 


bh 


a 


^ 


He 


n h 


5 


^ = ;: 


no 


i 


i 


Vav 


) w 


6 


of = -: 


ncl 


r> 


a 

n 


Zayin 

Clieth 


1 s 

n cii 


7 
8 


(3 = n: 


nh 


b 


G 


Teth 


a t 


9 


& = a: 


nf 


1 
J3 


i 
3 


Yodli 
Kapli 


' y 

3 cch 


10 

20 


_m =- :; 


nn 


V 


V or (£, 


Lanierih 


*? i 


30 


M = 13 


n w 


* 


N 


Mem 


£ in 


40 


j = »3 


nj 


o 


J 

O 


Nun 
Samek 


: n 

D ss 


50 

60 


ot = ^ 


Z(l 


y or ^ 


y °r $ 


Ayin 


> e 


70 


7 = is 


zw 


© 





Pe 


a p 


80 


Qi = ^ 


zi 


® 


D 


Fe 


£ f 


90 


op 








Tsadhe 
Q'oph 


2 c o' z 


100 

200 


4 1 with mark of ab- 
breviation, in use at the 
end of certain words. 


n 


o 


Resh 


1 r 


.300 












Shin 


» sh 


400 






j\ 


.n 


Tav 


n th 


500 







FINAL LETTERS. 

Polish. Gorman. 



= *] cch 

= D in 

= i » 

= *\ t 

= r c z 



f = 1 cch 






D Vn 

i " 

?' c z 



15 



SAMARITAN 







Pronun- 


Numerical 


* 


Form 


Name 


ciation 


value 


NOTES. 










The Samaritan is a Semitic language. Therefore, 


A 


Aleph 


Spintus lenis 


1 


the alphabet consists only of consonants (22 in number 








ami is read from right to left. As iii this language 


3 


Beth 


b bh 


2 


words cannot be separated at the end of the lines. 
the two letters ending the last word arc separated 


t 


Gimel 


g gli 


3 


from the others ami placed at the end of the line ; 
hut in printing tliis is generally avoided by dimin- 


f 


Daleth 


d dli 


4 


ishing or enlarging the spaces between the single 
words. 


3C 


He 


ll Spir. aaper 


5 


Save some points and scant) orthographical 

signs, there are in Samaritan no vowel- marks. 


* 


Yav 


\\ V 


G 


accents or other diacritical siijns as in Hebrew. 


^ 








Therefore we are somewhat in the dark about the 


Zavin 


s (Is 


7 


pronunciation of the consonants and vowels ami it 










can be acquired only by comparison with the Syriac 


H 


Cheth 


cli hh 


8 


ami the Hebrew, 


f 


Teth 


t 


9 


VOWELS. 


01 


Yorth 


y 


10 


There are no rowel-marks as in ether Semitic 
languages. However, to supply this want ami to 


* 


Kaph 


k cli 


20 


indicate somewhat the pronunciation, some conso- 








nants are used as rowels . \i/. : 


1 


Lamedh 


I 


30 


i A. 3f- V 


'U 


Mem 


in 


4(> 


8 A, fil 


> 


Nun 


ll 


50 


i ffl 


£ 


Samek 


v 


60 


«), oo X 


V 


Avin 


j; b. 


To 


Of two consonants beginning a word, the Hrsl 

is pronounced a^ if it were ■ slight and indistinct 


3 


Pe 


]. ph 


80 


rowel, similar to the Hebrew Sbwa, 


m 


Tsadhe 


ts 


90 


DIACRITICAL SIGNS. 


V 


Q'oph 


k 


1(H) 


The only diacritical sign i> a stroke orei the 
consonant e. g, fc) serving to distinguish two 


^ 


Resh 


r 


200 


different words written in tbe same manner, or two 
different forma derived from one and the same root, 


JUUL 


Shin 


Bh 


300 


or to indicate so letter added or omitted. When 


A 


Tav 


t th 


4(H) 


placed over fj^ or \, the stroke indicates thai 










these letters are real consonants, not representing 
1 rowels. 



PUNCTUATION. 

A point is pin b\ the sub- of tb<' final letter of B word. Besides ihi>. ihe following signs have been 
introduced b\ the transcribers: 

t or * or •»* at the end of a sentence, 

♦ ♦ < also ♦) at the end of pari of a sentence, like our colon, 

.♦ or — <^t more seldom — ** t etc. , or compound — <^t =■•* et< at the end of a longer sentence 
or section . 
<^V« = — »V^> or similar signs, sometimes again and again repeated, between the end ol one section, 

paragraph or chapter, and the beginning of the other. 
The numbers are written as m Hebrew sec under 



16 



SYRIAC 



Name 



V 



Olaph 

Beth 

Gomal 

Dolath 

He 

Vau 

Zain 

Cheth 

Teth 

Yud 

Koph 

Lomad 

Mim 

Nun 

Semcath 

Ee 

Pe 

Tsode 

Quph 

Rish' v ' 

Shin 

Tau 



Form 



5 

(51 



i 



connect- 
ed with 
a preced- 
ing letter 



connect- 
ed with 
both 



r 

01 



4 






A 



£1 



la 
1 

£12 
-. 

2. 



connect- 
ed with 
a follow- 
ing letter 



Pronun- 
ciation 



Numer. 
value 






2 
- 



Spiritus lenis 

b or V 
g 

d 
h 



W or V 
Z 

ch 
t 

y 

ch 
1 

m 
n 

s 



■- as in 
** hebrew 



P or f 
tS or Z 

q 

r 

sh 

til or t 



8 
9 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

90 

100 

200 

300 

400 



VOWELS. 

The Syriac is written from right to 
left. — The vowels are expressed by 
diacritical signs or some marks in 
imitation of the greek; the latter of 
which are now mostly in use. In 
former times both kinds were em- 
ployed promiscuously. 



Figure 


Name 




Syriac. 


Greek. 




-j- 


7 

" 7 


Pethocho 


a 


— or _ 


1 " 


Rebotzo 


e 


_ 


3: 


Chebotzo 


i 


- or - 


P 


Zekopho 


o 


a a a 


5s 

a — 


Etsotso 


00 



DIACRITICAL SIGNS. 

. Ruchoch , a point below an aspi- 
rated letter to indicate that it is 
to be aspirated. 

. Quskoi , a little point over an 
aspirated letter to indicate that 
it is not to be aspirated. 

•• Ribui, two points placed horizon- 
tally above the word to indicate 
the plural. 

— Marhetono, a line above a letter 
between two consonants to indi- 
cate the absence of a vowel. Be- 
sides, this line signifies 1) a num- 
ber, 2) an abbreviation, 3) an 
exclamation. 

— MeJiagyono , a line below a letter, 
to show- that though without a 
vowel it is to be pronounced as 
if it had one. 

— Linea occultans, a liue placed be- 
low a letter to denote that it is 
to be mute or omitted in pro- 
nunciation. 

PUNCTUATION. 

I marks a single part of the premise 
of a sentence. 

•» marks the end of a premise; or, 
it is sign of interrogation. 

•* marks the single parts of the con- 
clusion of a sentence; or, larger 
interrogations. 

*l* or ;; at the end of a period. 

NUMERICAL VALUE. 

The consonants of the alphabet sup- 
ply the numbers from 1 to 400; in 
compound numbers . the greater pre- 
cedes. Within 500 — 900, the tens 
from 50—90 are denoted by a point 
standing aloft. The mark N under a 
unit denotes the thousands , -the ten- 
thousands, /v the product ot'the thou- 
sands multiplied by the tenthousands. 
In writing fractions, the numerator 
is denoted by a little stroke going 
from left to right, placed above the 
denominator. 



LIGATURES. 



^ ^ Olaph-Lomad. fl % \L >L Lomad -Olaph. ~ Double -Gomal. ^^ Doubie-Lomad 



17 



SYRIAC 



Cut in the printing-office of B. G. Teuhser in Leipzig conformably to original drawings by Professor 
Tcllberg of Upsala and Professor Bernstein of Breslan. 



Form 


Pronun- 
ciation 


Name 


Form 


Pronun- 
ciation 


Name 


Form 


Pronun- 
ciation 


Name 


1 I 

2 J 

3 ) 


a 
or 

Spirit. 

lenis. 


Olaph 


29 V*, 

31 j 


gh 


Gonial 


57 ) 

58 | 

59 ~ 


1 z 

j'(gr.u) 


Zain 


4 ^ 

5 ^ 

6 ^ 

7 s2> 


b 

and 

bfa 




32 ♦ 

33 * 

34 ♦ 
36 'j 


(1 

anil 

dfa 




60 ~ 
Gl *• 

62 ~ 

63 t 


kh 


Cheth 


8 -) 






3G ♦ 






64 & 






9 1 






87 ?' 






65 ± 






10 z> 
ii i 




BetL 


38 f 

39 J 


- d 


Dolatfa 


66 £ 

,;7 i> 


i 


Teth 


L2 z> 


i» 




40 a 






fr 






13 '-) 






ii .i 






,; -' 4) 






14 1 






12 j 






70 ^ 






15 p 

16 p 

17 > 


bfa 




l:; .♦ 

11 r 

46 jf 


dfa 




71 * 

72 .. 

7;; * 






18 > 






46 .♦ 






71 ^ 


i 


Yud 


19 ^ 






47 O) 






75 ^ 






20 ^ 


g 




48 o> 






7G ^ 






21 V^ 


gh 




49 6i 






77 x 






23^ 
85 ^ 


o- 


Gonial 


50 6> 

51 oi 

52 o> 

53 oj 


fa 


He 


781 o 

7:> D 

80 } 

81 3 


c 

and 

cfa 


Kopfa 


26^ 






54 Oi 






82 1 






27 ^ 1 

28 ^ 1 


gh 




55 o 1 

56 Q j 


W V u 


Van 


8* *j 

84 b } 


c 





18 





SYRIAC 








1 

w „_' Pronun- 
Porm elation 


Name 


Form 


Pronun- 
ciation 


Name 


Form 


Pronun- 
. ciation 


Name 


85 b 






115 QQ 






145 a 






86 ^ 






II63P 


' . S 


Semcath 


146 A 


> sh 


Shin 


87 i 


c 




117 3P 






147 a 






88 -t 






118 i. 






148 I 






89 ^ 

90 p 

91 p 




* Koph 


119 * 

120 \ 

121 \ 


ee 
■ (hebr. 

V) 


Ee 


149 N 

150 1 

151 * 


t 

> and 
th 




92 •> 

93 -i 


ch 




122 N\ 

123 N^ 






152 1 

153 k 






94 y 






124 2> 






154 1 


, t 


, Ta li 


95 ^ 






125 2i 


p 




155 -IS 






96 \ 






126.2) 


. and 

P h(f) 




156 I 






97 \ 






127 s^l 




, Phe 


Vol I 






98^ 
99 ^ 


1 


Lomad 


128 2> \ 

129 2> J 




158 fcs 

159 1 


> th 




100 ^ 

101 ^ 






130 2> ) 

' Lphf 

131 2i J 




160 & 






LI 


GATUR. 


ES. 


102 X> 

103 >Q 

104 X> 

105 » 


m 


Mini 


132 j 

133 J 

134 j 

135 J ; 


Sharp 

> s 

or 

SS 


Tsode 


161 ^ 

162 ^ 

163 ^ 
164^ 


- 


Olaph- 
Lomad 


106 )0 

107 )Q 

108 J 






136 a 

137 JQ 

138 JD 


\ k 


Quph 


165 v^ 
166^ 
167 ^ 


1 gg 


Double- 
Gomal 


109 J 






139 ja 






168 ^ 






110 i 

111 ^ 

112 v 


n 


Nun 


140 * 

141 i 

142 V 


. r 


Rish 


169^ 
170Q^1 


► gv 


Gonial- 
Vau 


113 v 

114 a> 


[• 


Seincath 


143 ♦ 

144 jt 


sh 


Shin 


172 ^ ] 
173^ | 


■ Ml 


Vau- 
Nojq 



19 



SYRIAC 



Form 



174 
175 
176 
L77 
L78 
L79 



* 
^ 



il 

.80$x 
181 £ 
182^ 
183^ 
184^ 
185 ^ 
18(J^ 
187 \k 
188^ 

189 & 

190 & 

191 >& 

192 \k 

193 &. 

194 & 
105 •&. 
L96 •& 

197 ^> 

198 Jj 

199 Ji 

300 v 
201^ 

202 v^ 



Pronun- 
ciation 



la 



lee 



ssn 



ssg 



Name 



Yud-Nun 



Lomad- 
Olaph 



Lomad- 
Teth 



Double 

Lomad 



Lomad- 
Ee 



Lomad- 
Tan 



Mi in- 
Nim 

Nun- 
Olaph 

Tsode- 

Nun 

Tsode- 
Gomal 



Vowels, Accents and Orthographi 
cal Signs 



p Rebotzo 



i Chebotzo 



VOWELS AND ACCENTS. 

203 v 1 

> a Pethocho 

204 ?■ ) 

205 fi 

206 » 

207 •. 

208 * 

209 .• 

210 • 

211 p 

212 • / o Zekopho 

213 : 

•jil * u Eteotso 



ORTHOGRAPHIC \i 
SIGNS. 

215 - Ribui 

216 - Mehagyono 

217 - Marhetono 

218 Qoshoi,Ruchoch 



Points and Numbers 



POINTS. 



219 
220 

221 
222 
223 



j Little hooks at the 

| beginning <>f a word 

at the end of a 
f word 

Strokes between 

\ the single letters to 

adjust fche liiif- 



224 . 


229 


225 _: 


230 


226 -: 


231 


227 _•. 


282 


228 -♦. 





233 <• Mark of marginal 

notes 
23 I < Number- Mark 



NUMBERS. 



Form 


Value 


t 


1 


^ 


2 


^ 


n 

o 


J 


4 


O) 


5 


o 


6 


) 


7 


«A* 


8 


i 


9 


- 


10 


r> 


20 


^ 


30 


K> 


40 


t 1 


50 


S> 


60 


\i. 


70 


& 


SO 


J 


90 


J3 


100 



200 
300 

400 
1000 



20 



ARABIC 





Form 


Pronunciation 




Name 


Unconnected 


Connected 
with a preced- 
ing letter 


Connected 
with both 


Connected 
with a follow- 
ing letter 


Numerical 
value 


Elif 


I 


L 






N Spir. lenis 


1 


Ba 


o 


V—A. 


A 


J 


b 


2 


Ta 


v«> 


o. 


A 


5 


t 


400 


Tha 


icy 


OSi 


A 


3 


th 


500 


Jim 
Hha 


c 


e 
e 




a. 


J 

hh 


3 

8 


Cha 


ia> 


S. 


ch 


600 


Dal 


4> 






d 


4 


Dhal 


6 


A 






dh or ds 


700 


Ra 


; 


; / 






r 


200 


Zay 


; 


> 


• *• • 




z 


7 


Sin 


U" 


LP* 


Aft* 


MJ 


s 


60 


Shin 


LP 


|> 


A 


Xu 


sh 


300 


Ssad 


U° 


(ja 


*a 


a9 


SS or Q 


90 


Ddad 


U* 


L>a 


-* 


.O 


d or dd 


800 


Tta 


Jo 


h. 


k 


is 


tt or th 


9 


Zza 


Jo 


h 


b 


£ 


zz 


900 


Ain 


e 


t 


X 


£ 


y Spir. gutt. 


70 


Ghain 


£ 


t 


X 


^ 


gh 


1000 


Fa 


o 


A 


i 


f 


.80 


Qaf 


o 


(J- 


A 


5 


k 


100 


Kaf 


J 


& 


JC.^. 


r*b 


k soft 


20 


Lam 


J 


S 


JL 


j 


1 


30 


Mim 


r 


r 


<♦■ 


/0 


m 


40 


Nun 


u 


c> 


A 


3 


n 


50 


Ha 


5 Final g 


x Final & 


4 


55 


h 


5 


Waw 


J 


J 






w 


6 


Ya 


^ 


^5 


A 


J 


3Ti i 


10 



ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS 
S ■£ g % £ £■ 



21 

VOWELS. 
jC- Fatha, a a e ~ Kesre, 1 e _>_ Damma, oo o 

At the end of the substantives the vowels are doubled to indicate the ease, viz. : 

_s_ on ~~ in _f_ an 

This is called Nunation, because, in pronouncing, Nun is added to the vowel. 

DIPHTHONGS: ^_1_ a j ^JL_ au UJBgeman< 

ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 
JeZllia, separating syllables, is written over the final consonant of all shut syllable 
and indicates, that the syllable is finished and the consonant to be pronounced with 
the preceding vowel; it corresponds to the Shica quiescens of the Hebrew. 
_TL Teshdid, mark of doubling. The final consonant of a syllable being the same as 
that beginning the following one, this consonant is written only once, but marked 
with the sign _^_, which corresponds to the Hebrew Daghesh forte. In African manu- 
scripts it is written v or a. 
_»_ HaillZa is placed generally above the Elif , when this is used as a consonant and 
furnished with a vowel; when this vowel is a Kesre, the Hamza is placed beneath; 
sometimes also it stands above the Y. In Kufie Korans it is supplied by a little green 
stroke, in Moorish or African manuscripts by a thick green or yellow dor. 
*° vv esla, joining- mark. The Elif , at the commencement of a word, is sometimes in 
pronunciation absorbed by the final vowel of the preceding word. In this ease, the 
vowel of the Klif is elided and marked by the Wesla. 
~ Medda stands above an Elif pronounced l)y Fatha and followed by a Hamza; it in- 
dicates the prolongation of the a. It is placed, also, above an Elif at the commence- 
ment of a word, or instead of an omitted Elif. Besides, this sign is a mark of abbre- 
viation. PUNCTUATION. 

There are no signs of punctuation in Arabic, only in the Koran the verses are separated 
by ^. This sign, however, or * or *' or a red dot. is employed also in other books at the 
end of a section. In manuscripts , sometimes , anew section begins with a word written 
in red colour; in manuscript dictionaries a red line is placed above each catch -word. 

cirina 

Formerly, the Arabs, like other oriental nations, used the letters of the alphabet to 
express numbers; at a later period, however, they adopted the following 10 special figures, 
called by us Europeans the Arabian ciphers, by the Arabs themselves the Indian ones. 

I V r t° 6 ^ V A 1 ♦ 

12 3 4 5 (5 7 8 9 
Regarding their composition and value they aceord with our numerals, which are 
taken from them, whereas the consonant- expressing ciphers are written from right to left, 
viz. U«H (1861). 





AEABIC LIGATURES 




£e** 


Ba-Jim 


da. 


Tha-Cha 




Ba-Hha 


3?: 


Jim - Jim 


Ba-Hha-Jim 


3E 


Jim-Hha 


c • ■ 


Ba-Cha 


£* 


Hha-Jim 


€£* 


Ta-Jim 


i 


Hha-Jim-Jim 


d£~* 


Ta-Hha 


B 


Hha- Jim-Hha 

# 


c 


Ta-Cha 


f * 


Hha -Hha 


Tha-Hha 


i 


Hha -Hha -Jim 



22 



ARABIC LIGATURES 


t* 


Hha-Cha 


g£L£ 


Kaf-Cha 


Z* 


Cha-Jim 


51 * 


Lam-Elif 


i £4^ 


Cha-Hha 
Sin -Jim 
Sin-Hha 
Sin-Cha 
Shin - Jim 




Lam- Jim 

Lam-Jim-Hha 

Lam-Hha 

Lam-Hha-Jim 

Lam-Hha-Hha 




Shin-Hha 
Shin-Cha 
S sad -Jim 


i 


Lam-Cha 
Lam- Cha-Jim 
Lam - Mini - Hha- Jim 


^>^^a^p 


Ssad-Hha 


&j 


Lam - Mini - Hha - Hha 


^P^i^iSS' 


Ssad-Cha 


a ± 


Lam-Ya 


^a 


Ddad-Jim 


£ 4* ^ 


Mini -Jim 




Ddad-Hha 
Tta-Hha 


a? 


Mini -Hha 
Mini -Hha -Jim 


4~ ^ 


Aiii-Jim 


5S? 


Mim-Hha-Hha 


£. a£ 


Ain-Hha 


£ ^ ■=* 


Mim-Cha 


4 # 


Ghain-Jim 
Ghain-Hha 
Fa -Jim 
Fa-Hha 


d£^* 


Nun -Jim 
Nun -Hha 
Nun-Cha 
Ha -Jim 


d&^* 


Fa-Cha 


<^N ^ 


Ha -Hha 


A 


Fa-Ya 


i& i£> 


Ha-Cha 


££ 


Qaf - Jim 


? 


Ha -Mini 


It 


Qaf-Hha 
Qaf-Cha 




Ya-Jim 
Ya- Jim -Hha 




Kaf-Elif 
Kaf-Jim 
Kaf-Hha 




Ya-Hha 

Ya-Hha-Hha 

Ya-Cha 



23 



AETHIOPIAN AND AMHARIC 





Form 


3 O 


Name 


with D 


with u with i 


with a 


with e with e 


with 6 


2.2 


Hoi 


u i* 


U- hu 


yr hi 


y ha 


y he 


U be 


IT ho 


h 


Lawi 


A 'a 


A- '■ 


A li 


i\ la 


A la 


A la 


TV lo 


1 


Haut 


rf\ 


rfr »■- 


rfa. •" 


rh ha 


ith he 


fh be 


/fr ho 


h 


Mai 


C^> ma 


<^>» mu 


(ft. "» 


(fi ma 


C?3 me 


f^ me 


Cp mo 


m 


Saut 


ID ■' 


Uh bu 


UJL si 


W sa 


UJ se 


pu se 


IJJ so 


s 


Rees 


^ ra 


4^ ru 


Z Pi 


Zi ra 


*£ re 


C re 


C ro 


r 


Sat 


fl sa 


rt- su 


A, s' 


i*l sa 


rt. s * 


fl se 


j*i so 


s 


*Shat 


fl ■!" 


fj- shu 


Fi, sh. 


Fl sha 


fl she 


fl she 


_pi sho 


sh 


Kaf 


4> ka 


$ ku 


<£ ki 


<$> ka 


* ke 


cf> ke 


<p ko 


k 


Bet 


fl ba 


ft. bu 


a bi 


q ba 


ft ba 


•ft be 


p bo 


b 


Tawi 


*f ta 


-fc tu 


•t ti 


J- ta 


t te 


^ te 


-f. to 


t 


*Tshawi 


4 s tsha 


^ tshu 


$ tshi 


^p tsha 


^ tshe 


"^ tshe 


^JJ tsho 


tsh 


Harm 


■$ ha 


-*. hi 


^ h. 


1 h 


1 ba 


ri he 


^° ho 


h 


Nahas 


{ na 


f, nu 


i 


£ na 


I ne 


"5 ne 


4° no 


n 


*Gnahas 


T 8^ 


"£ 8 nu 


X 9 nl 


? 8« 


I 8"* 


1 gne 


V 8 no 


gn 


Alt' 


A a 


^ » 


A. > 


K a 


A a 


A a 


is o 


a 


Kaf 


"ft ^ 


^ ku 


"ft ki 


Yl ka 


U ke 


51 ke 


"pi ko 


k 


*Chaf 


"fr ,h.3 


Tf 


•'a 


Tq da 


"fi f be 


51 a 


Y* cho 


ch 


Wawi 


(D 


ax wu 


<E wi 


<f wa 


<£ we 


AT 


P wo 


w 


Ain 





l> u 


^ ' 


<7? 


Cfe e 


a 


{J 


V 


Zai 


H a 


H* ■ 


a ■ 


H 


H, za 


"H a 


p zo 


z 


:: Zshai 


■H" ja 


TF ja 


K ji 


-H" ja 


■K ja 


5T ja 


K o 


J* 


Yam an 


P y« 


P jm 


p. 


f P 


F. ya 


.E ya 


p- yo 


y 


Dent 


£ «■ 


R. * 


JZ. i 


J? 


R i'- 


JP- Ja 


^ do 


d 


*Jent 


Jf P 


£ ju 


%. 


J? ja 


^ ja 


J?" ja 


£ jo 


j 


Geml 


7 aa 


7- 8'J 


2 9 


3 8a 


2 ga 


°2 8 e 


1 8° 


g 


Tait 


fll a 


m* t 


m. t 


n\ ta 


m, te 


^P te 


jfn to 


t 


-Tshait 


HI tsba 


ffi. tshu 


m. tshi 


ttt ts ha 


m, tshe 


tyC tshe 


t™ tsho 


tsh 


Pait 


A pa 


/t pu 


A. pi 


A pa 


A pa 


A pa 


£ po 


P 


Tzadai 


A tsa 


/t tsu 


A ' S1 


K tsa 


A tse 


A tse 


/* tso 


ts 


Tsappa 


9 tsa 


EJ, tsu 


<g. ta 


9 tsa 


S tse 


£ tse 


^9 tso 


ts 


Aff 


4 fa 


£ K 


a fi 


4* ^ 


A* fa 


4: fe 


^ fo 


f 


Pa 


T Pa 


T P" 


T pi 


X pa 


T pa 


T pa 


T po 


p 


DIPHTHONGS. 


NOTE. 

The Aethiopian and the Am- 




liaric are read from left to 




right. The words are separa- 


<J*° kua cfw, kui $ ha $> kue 4^ kue 


ted by : — The alphabet of both 
languages is syllabic ; the Am- 


•^o hka ^ hhui ■£ hhua **& hhue ^v hhue 


haric, however, has seven 
orders of letters (each order 


Ylt° kua fft kui fr. kua fa iue Y^ kue 


consisting of 7 forms or cha- 
racters), wanting in Aethiopi- 


T gua 


> 


F 2 


S'aa 2 


8 ue ' 


b 8 ue 


an, which, 
are marke 


iii the above 
1 by *. 


able, 



24 



AETHIOPIAN 



Cut in the printing -office of F. A. Bkockhaus in Leipzig under the direction ol" the German Oriental Society. 



With a 


With u 


With i 


With a 


With e 


With e 


With 6 


ha 


U« hu 


% 


hi 


y 


ha 


% 


he 


1 
li 


he 


V ho 


A »a 


A- 1" 


A. 


li 


A 


la 


A. 


le 


A 


le 


A° lo 


th ha 


rh. hti 


A. 


hi 


Ji 


ha 


ili. 


he 


;u 


he 


th ho 


ao ma 


im- mii 


«?» 


mi 


n 


ma 


"fc 


m6 


r 


me 


<p mo 


W sa 


UM su 


"t 


SI 


»t 


c « 

sa 


"fc 


se 


p> 


se 


y so 


£ ra 


4- ru 


& 


ri 


& 


ra 


& 


re 


c 


re 


£ r6 


rt sa 


fr sd 


A. 


si 


* 


sa 


A. 


s6 


A 


se 


A so 


4» qa 


* qii 


* 


4 r 


p 


qa 


* 


qe 


4» 


qe 


* qo 


fl ba 


ft. bii 


n. 


bi 


n 


ba 


n, 


be 


-fl 


be 


ft bo 


± ta 


•J: tii 


•t 


ti 


^ 


ta 


-It 


t£ 


* 


te 


-fl to 


-» fe a 


**■ !$ 


X 


w 


3 


ha 


•fc 


he 


1 


he 


"P !?° 


^ na 


^ nu 


X 


ni 


9 


na 


fc 


ne 


? 


ne 


<f no 


h -a 


h« -u 


K 


-i 


a 


-a 


lb 


-e 


h 


-e 


A 6 


h ka 


h- kti 


h. 


ki 


ii 


ka 


h, 


k£ 


h 


ke 


*l ko 


CD wa 


m. wu 


«E 


vvi 


<P 


wa 


<e 


we 


OH 


we 


JP wo 


a 


0- u 


% 


? , 


°t 


a 


% 


e 


A 


e 


/» <6 


H za 


If- zu 


H. 


zi 


n 


za 


ti 


Z<* 


-H 


ze 


H zo 


f ya 


fc ya 


P. 


y* 


? 


ya 


p. 


y^ 


£ 


y e 


p. yo 


£ da 


^ dii 


3. 


cli 


*\ 


da 


& 


de 


£■ 


de 


JK do 


1 8 a 


7* g" 


I 


4 


p 


ga 


I 


ge 


•7 


g e 


■> go 


m ta 


m« tu 


m. 


ti 


m 


ta 


m. 


te 


T 


te 


fn to 


A pa 


A. pu 


A. 


P* 


ft 


P a 


A. 


P^ 


Ji- 


P e 


* po 


ft za 


ft zii 


X. 


zi 


* 


za 


& 


ze 


ff 


ze 


^ zo 


za 


0- zii 


t 


zi 


1 


za 


ft 


ze 


b 


ze 


P zo 


£ ^ 


£ fii 


& 


fi 


* 


fa 


4, 


f e , 


<£ 


fe 


C fo 


T pa . 


V pu 


x 


Pi 


? 


pa 


T 


pe 


T 


pe 


^ po 



25 



DIPHTHONGS. 






kua 
gua 
qua 
hua 



h*. kui 

Tt. gui 

4** qui 

*V. hui 






kue 



que 
hue 






kua 

gua 

quA 






kue 
gue 
que 
hu<§ 



PUNCTUATION. 
Comma 



Stop for the division of words : 

NUMBERS 



Semicolon 



Full stop 



1234567 89 10 11 etc. 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 200 etc. 1000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000 



Ethiopic , formerly the vernacular language of the Abyssinians , by whom it was called 
Geez, is only preserved in writings. As a Semitic language it bears a close affinity to the 
Himyaric, a South- Arabian dialect, which was superseded in the times of Mahomed. The 
Ethiopic possesses a high degree of flexibility which is mainly due to the diligence with which 
the study of Greek writings was cultivated in Abyssinia. The Alphabet originally consisted 
of consonants without indications of vowels. In form it approaches the Himyaric and thus 
differs from the other Semitic characters. Ancient Ethiopic inscriptions show examples of 
writing from right to left; owing, however, to the early influence of Greek literature, espe- 
cially after the introduction of Christianity, the arrangement of words was fixed from left to 
right. At the same time the coalition of consonants and vowels was indicated by particular 
forms, which gave rise to the adoption of a complete syllabarium. With the change of the 
ruling power in the fourteenth century the Ethiopic language began to decay, and rapidly 
falling into disuse, it is now replaced by the Amharic language. 



AMHARIC. 



This language deriving its name from the kingdom of Amhara in Abyssinia, has supplant- 
ed the ancient Ethiopic idiom. The kings of Shoa, on gaining the upper hand, effected the 
preponderance of the Amharic language, to the exclusion of the kindred Ethiopic. The 
Alphabets of both languages are identical, except the following Characters, which are peculiar 
to the Amharic language. 



with a 


with u 


with i 


with a 


with e 


with e 


with 6 


Jl sha 


ff. shu 


ft shi 


7f sha 


K she 


7j she 


?? sho 


5f? tsha 


¥ ishu 


i£ tshi 


»j2 tsha 


if; tshe 


"4« tshe 


2f tsho 


7 na 


f. nu 


% Si 


? na 


■g ne 


^ ne 


^ no 


•fi kha 


TJ. khu 


U khl 


Ti kha 


-ftkhe 


•fi khe 


Ti kho 


IP ja (Fr.) 


Tf= ju 


TC ji 


Tfja 


Tfjt 


WP 


IT jo 


£ ja 


% j* 


% ji 


$ P 


E p 


ft je 


£ P 


1,1,1. Cnlla 


£Eb chhu 


££l.chhi 


«fc chha 


£Efe»chhe 


*£» chhe 


£Bbchh6 



# 

* 



lua 
mua 
rua 
sua 



DIPHTHONGS. 

W sua X nua 

o bua }^ zua 

rjh lua ■ vua 

Jp cua' ^ dua 



^ tua 

(X^ cua 

£ zua 

$. fua 



26 



TURKISH. 



T he Turkish language is a compound of words taken from the Tatar, Persian and Arabic languages. The high 
dialect, only spoken at Constantinople by people of quality, and serving as the written language, is 
a compound of Persian and Arabic words. Like most oriental languages , Turkish is written and read 

from right to left. 



t Elif supplies the german vowels a, y, o, 
u, the consonants of the word being hard ; 
but the german e, i, 6, u, the consonants 
being soft. When Alif is followed by 
a hard consonant, the ^ ( Ustun) is 
pronounced like a, the ~~7~ (Esre) like y, 
and the _j_ (Utru) like o or u. Follo- 
wing, however, a soft consonant, the ' 
(Ustun) is to be read as e, the~7~ (Esre) 
as i, and the > (Utru) as o or u. In the 
middle and at the end of words, without 
Hamzalif , the Alif is always pronounced 
like a, but with Hamzalif, like e. 

j Ba is our b. After Ta, Tha, Jim, Cha, 
Sin, Shin, Ssad, Tta\ Qaf, Gef'xt is often 
read likejj. 

■> Pa is owr p. 

'J Ta is our t. In the conjugation of some 
verbs it is changed into Dal. 

y Tha is our s or ss, except the word ^X'J 

tult. The Arabs pronounce it like th. 
- Jim, the Italian g before e or i. When 
'" meeting the consonants named above in 
connection with the letter ^ „>, it is pro- 
nounced like Tchim. 



Tckin like our ch in ches: 
Hha like h in have. 



C 

«p- Cha, the german ch in brauchen. 

<.> Dal like d. It is pronounced like t when 
meeting the consonants named above in 
connection with the letter ^. 

3 Dhal like z. 

\ Ra like r. 

\ Za like our z. 

jj*< Sin like s, ss. 

(j** Shin like sh. 






Ssad like sharp ss. 

Ddad, like our z; the Arabs pronounce 

it like d. 

Tta like t or th; it is often confounded 
with Ta and Dal. 



lb Zza like our 

e 



e 

o 

O 
J 



J 

r 



-4in like a strong guttural and nasal a, 

V, to. 

Ghain like g guttural. 

Fa like our/. 

Qa/ like k, kh or c&. 

Kaf, like 9 or &, as in the french words 
qui, quel. 

Gef, accords with our g in give; in 
some cases it is pronounced like gi very 
soft; in the middle of words and in some 
terminations like y. 

■£=3 Saghur Nun, i. e. mute Nun, like the 
french nasal -n in mon, son. 

Lam our /; in some cases it is soft like 
/in limb, in some hard like /in all. 
Mim, like m. 

Nun our n; but when followed by a Ba, 
it is pronounced like m. 

Waw our w or v; furnished with Utru, 
it is pronounced like a in conjunction 
with hard consonants ; like german ii or 0, 
however, in conjunction with soft ones. 

Ha like our h ; at the end of words it is 
mostly pronounced like a or e. 

Lamelif, la or Ha (Ligature). 

Fa, when a consonant like our y, when a 
vowel like t; it represents a vowel only 
in the middle or at the end of words. 



ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 



" Ustun is placed over the consonants and 

pronounced like a with a hard consonant, 

like e with a soft one. 
^ Esre below the consonants , is pronounced 

like vowel y with a hard consonant, but 

like i with a soft one. 
f Utru is pronounced like or u with a hard 

consonant, but like or u with a soft one. 
# Iki ustun (double Ustun) like en. 
^ Iki esre (double Esre) like in. 
S Iki utru (double Utru) like on or un. 
The three last marks are only employed in 
Arabic words. 



fc Jesm (sign of pause) is placed over a 
consonant wanting a vowel , followed by an 
other consonant. 

~ Teshdid or Shedde when placed over a con- 
sonant doubles it. 

■"" Meddelif or Medda, is only placed over the 
Alif, which, then, is always pronounced 
like- a. 

P Hamzelif or Hamza : placed over Elif, is 
pronounced like e; over Waw, like u. 
over Fa, like 1; at the end of words, end- 
ing with a vowel, like 1. 













27 














PERSIAN 


1 


Name 


Form 


Pronun- 


Xumer: 


, i 




connected 




connected 




uncon- 


with a 


connected 


with a 


ciation 


value 






nected 


preceding 
letter 


with both 


following 
letter 








Elif 


» 


I 1 






Spiritjs lenis 


1 


Many Arabic word* having been 


Ba 


o 


V* 


A 


J 


b 


2 


introduced into the Persian language. 


Pa 






* 








the Persian alphabet consists of 32 


<mi 


u 


X 


-> 


P 




consonants, which are written and 


Ta 














read from right to left; of these 


O) 


o* 


A 


3" 


t soft 


400 


consonants, 28 are common to both 


Tha 


("J 


£k 


X 


J 


S sharp 


500 


languages ; only the following four 
are purelj Persian : 


Jim 


e 


t 


A 


^ 


j 


3 


V£J <* 


Tchim 
Hha 


C 


C 


V 


•2* 


tch 

nil sharp 


- 


VOWELS. 


Cha 


c 


t 


ia* 


■^ 


kllguttur. 


noo 


All Persian letters are consonants. 


Dal 









(1 


4 


except Elif,Waw andYa, which also 






suppl] lo a g vouch , the Wa\V, some- 


Dhal 


3 


cX 








700; 


times, represents a short vowel ; 


Ra 


; 


7 




• • 


1* 


200, 


la y w ^5 y 


Za 


; 


> 






Z soft 


7 


The short vowels are written thus: 


Zha 


J> 


/ 






ZDorJfrench 


• • • 


j^Zabar, a >~Zir,e jJPish, u 


Sin 


LT 


u** 


~ 


* 


S sharp 


60 


ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 


Shin 


LT 


LT 


.w. 


«IM 


Bh 


300 


P Hamza, at the end of a word. 


Ssad 


u* 


Ofl. 


A2. 


.O 


S Bharp 


90 
800 


sometimes supplies the Elif; it is 

also placed above an Elif in the 


Ddad 


u* 


L>i 


*d 


^ 


Z Jia r<l 


middle of a word , when the Klif 


Tta 


ic 


la 


k 


ic 


t 


9 


represents a consonant. 


Zza 


h 


Ji 


fe 


& 


Z hard 


900 


m Teshdid, do b tha letter 

over which it is placed. 


Ain 


t 

i 


t 
t 


X 


£ 


Spintus lenis 


70 


• Medda. Instead of an Elif 


Ghain 


X 


£ 


gllguttur. 


1000 


written twice, a Medda is placed 
over it. It is properly a second Elif, 


Fa 


*j 


oi 


A 


i 


f 


80 


but written lengthwise ; sometimes it 

has a vertical form. 


Qaf 


j 


(J 1 


& 


3 


lv guttux. 


100 


Jezma, over a consonant by 


Kaf 


j 


JL 


<=ut 


^=r 


k 


20 


which a syllable ends. Itis also placed 
over Waw or Ya, when thej form a 


Gaf 


<£ 


JL 


d=>.si. 


^=s 


g palatal 




diphthong with a preceding,. 


Lam 


J 


J^ 


JL 


J 


1 


30 


- 


Mini 


r 


r 


♦ 


X) 


m 


40 


CIPHERS. 










50 


To write numbers, -tbe Persians 


Nun 


u 


^ 


X 


j 


n 


employ ejjher the alphabet, or the 


Waw 


) 


j 






w 


6 


Arabic ciphers (see under). 


Ha 


5 


& 


4 





h 


5 


LIGATURE. 


Ya 


£ 


1 ^ 


A 


J 


yandi 


10 


3 ^ Lam -Elif, la. 



> , 



28 



AFGHAN OR PUSHTOO 



Figure 


Pronun- 
ciation 


Figure 


Pronun- 


unconnected 


in the midst 


at the com- 
mencement 


unconnected 


in the midst 


at the com- 
mencement 


ciation 


! 


1 1. 


t 


a, a, i, u 


lA 


•W. 


■*£ 


sh 


^ . 


A 


J' 


b 


o* 


^/5* -4* 


-*> 


khin 


S^ 


X 


£ 


P 


u° 


Aft 


*Q 


ss 


o 


A 


J 


t 


u* 


*o. 


jo 


dz 


* 


£ 


3 


tt 


At 


4a 


Jb 


t 


& 


A 


J 


t's 


b 


la 


fe 


z 


z 


rs 


£L 


t's 


£ 


A 


r 


cBj a 


A 


2> 


j 


e 


it 


£ • 


gh 


c 


A 


£b> 


ch 


o 


A 


i 


f 


c 


&> 


fi> 


h 


Uf 


A 


3 


k,q 


t 




i^ 


^ 


kh 


a* 


<=* £ 


^= r 


k 


A 


J 


d 


tt* 


C*jf 


f 


g 


d 


£ 


S 


(Id 


J 


JL 


j 


1 


6 


A 


j> 


z 


r 


♦ 


/? 


m 


; 


7 


; 


r 


U 


a 


3 


n 


J 


J 


j 


rr 


g 


V * 


i 


rrn 


> 


> 


) 


z 


J 


J 


) 


w 11 


t 


s 


iL 


dz 


5 & 


4 


p- 


h 


•; J> 


4 t 


J -J 


jz 


p- 


A 


j 


a 


u* 


m* 


AM 


s 


tS 


A 


j 


y, e, i, ai 



NOTES. 



Before the introduction of arabic words, the 
original Pushtoo alphabet consisted only of 
29 different sounds; at present, theAfghans make 
use also of the 28 arabic letters, and of these 
four letters used in Persian: v-J er- '': and ^>, 

from which results an alphabet of 40 different 
characters which are all consonants. 

The Pushtoo vowels are the same as the 
Arabic and Persian: 
' . Zabar or Fatha a, ~7~ Zer or Kasrah e, 
> Pesh or Zammah u. 
They are placed either above or under the conso- 
nant beginning a syllable, as: ^> ba, v«j bi, 
^-J bu. JZabar followed by " is read as the 



diphthong au\ followed by ^, as the diph- 
thong ai. "" 



or " Jesm or Jesmah indicates that the 
consonant has no vowel and the syllable 
is finished. 

Meddah or Medd, an other form of Elif, 
is sign of producing a syllable. 
Teshdid indicates that a consonant is to 
be pronounced double. 
IVesla, joining -mark. 
Hamzah supplies the place of Elif. 
—£~ s Tanwin is the arabic Nunation ar 
the end of the words , pronounced by ad- 
ding a n to the vowels: an. in, yn. 



29 



COPTIC 



Figure 



Name 



Pronunciation 



Notes 



B s 

r p 

•A * 
G e 

H 

e 
I 

R 

\ 
u 

H 

£ 



n 
p 
c 

T T 

<I> $ 
X x 

UJ cu 
UJ a, 

(T <f 



H 

e 

K 
JUL 

O 

n 

P 
c 



Alpha 

Vida 

Gamma 

Dalda 

Ei 

Zida 

Hida 

Hilda 

Jauda 

Kabba 

La ul a 

Mi 

Ni 

Kxi 

O 

Pi 

Ro 

Bima 

Dan 

He 

Phi 

Chi 

Ebsi 



Fei 

Hori 

Chei 

Scei 

Giangia 

Scima 

Dei Ligature 

So 



a 

b v 

g 
d 

e 
z 
t 
til 



1 

m 
n 
x 

O short 
P b 

r 

s 
t (1 

i, U Germ. 

pb 
eh sc 

ps 

O long 

f pb 

h 
kh 

sh 
g fish 

sk sc gh 
ti 

Cipher 6 



The Coptic language is divided into two dialects: the 
upper - cgyptian or thebaic or sabidic, and the lower- 
egyptian or mcmphitic or Coptic par excellence, 
to which may be added a third, the bashmuric dia- 
lect. The letters <5. — (W i» the Coptic alphabet 
are of greek origin; £f — (J on the olber hand sig- 
nify sounds which either wanted at all in the greek 
language, or which since the christian era no longer 
used in writing; they are taken from the older egyptian. 
This sign *+" denotes the syllable ti; its prototype 
is the Semitic and greek Tan. 

The vowels are : 

<*. e s o, 

the oo is written by OT, like in greek ; before 

i coneoaani it ii pr wnced by oo, before a vowel 

b] v Th«' coptic diphthongs are : 

<u es oi 

pronounced in the sahidic dialed only as £, T, i, in 
the meniphilie , however, as the german diphthongs 

ai, ei, oi. 



READING -SIGNS AND PUNCTUATION. 

shove a letter : the greek gravis. 

behind a word in sahidic manuscripts : dividing 
lign. 

°|* signifies s greater pause , like our semicolon or 
point. 

; signifies a shorter pause, like our comma. 

— sign of division. 

of abbreviature above the characters. 

J2_ graphic sign above some characters in sahidic 
manuscripts. 

' diacritic sign behind some words in sahidic manu- 
scripts. 

r Comma, only in later sahidic manuscripts. 

• orthographic sign above some characters in mcm- 
phitic books. 



NUMERICAL VALUE. 

The numerical value of the coptic characters is the 
same as in greek. Numerals are written by — . above 
the letters ; the thousands arc marked by , below near 
the letter, q (90) supplies the place of the greek *-| 
(koppa). ^ 



30 



CHINESE. 



A calculation, based upon the Imperial Chinese Dictionary, shows that the Chinese language is 
represented by 43,496 characters or symbols. Of this number 13,1)00 are totally irrelevant and con- 
sist of signs which are obsolete , incorrectly formed, and unexplained. For the expressions in ordi- 
nary literature about 4000 signs appear to suffice. The writings of Con-foo-tse (Confucius) and his 
disciples can even be read by the help of only 2500 characters, and a knowledge of these will enable 
the student tolerably to understand all Chinese works on history and philosophy. In lieu of the 
phonetic and lexicographical system, which appertains to most languages, the Chinese have adopted 
214 signs any of which, being placed by the side of an unknown character, indicates at once its 
pronunciation. These indicators of sound, are termed by the Chinese "Tribunals". European gram- 
marians have called them "Keys" or "Radicals". Occasionally the "Tones" (modulating accents) are 
appended at the top or foot of the character, at the right or the left side. Such accents are de- 
scribed as follows, 



ioD 



evert tone. 



2 Oo entering tone. 3 \J falling tone, 4 [J rising tone. 



The "Keys" are divided into 17 Classes, according to the number of strokes of which each 
character is composed, and are arranged in the following order: 



Class 
1. consisting of 1 stroke extends fromNr. 



» 2 strokes 



1—6 

7—29 

30-60 

61—94 

95—117 

118—146 

147—166 

167—175 

176-186 



Class 
10. consisting of 10 strokes extends from Nr.187 



-194 



» 11 
»12 
» 13 
» 14 
» 15 
.. 16 
» 17 



195—200 

201—204 

205—208 

209—210 

211 

212-213 

214 



1 o 


yt, one 


" U 


kan 


33 ^o 


s'z, scholar 


. i. 


chieh, perpen- 
dicular stroke 


18 o7] 


tou, knife 


34 X° 


fanfun 


3 ^ o 


Hen, point 


19 n 


lie, strength 


35 #° 


tsieh, slowly 


4 >'. 


pieh, stroke slant- 


20 1 o 


chwen, equal, 


36 #° 


dsieh, evening 




ing to the left 


* o 


triangle 






5 L 


yi, crooked 


21 o tj 


pi, spoon 


37 A 


la, great 


6 J o 


stroke 
kiu, hooked 


22 C 


fang, to pull out 


38 jf" 


nil, girl 


"* O 


stroke 










7 o — 


urh, two / 


23 Uo 


kwah, division 


39 : f 


tse, son, child 






between fields 






S -*~ 


yitien-yiwa 


24 To 

_ 


shiah, ten 


40 o *f» 


m ou or poen-an 
hat 


°A 


jin, man 


25 b 


poh, to divine 


41 \|" 


tsun. inch 


*1L. 


chah, foot 


26 n ° 


tsshi 


42°^ 


siou. small 


» A 


shah,. to enter 


27 J~~ o 


shi, shelter 


43 ~fLo 


kang } horrible 


12 X 
x v o 


pah, eight 


28 J^ 


chee, perverse 


44 p" 


shi, corpse 


13 n„ 


kwah, desert 


29 ^° 


yiu, again, 


45 lfl° 


tsou 


" o 




o 


moreover 






14o*~> 


mien, to cover 


30 p 


kiu, mouth 


46 UJ° 


san . mountain 


i5° y 


pin, ice 


Bl° 


hwei, return 


«•{« 


cltuen . stream 


16 JC 


chi, bench 


32 o± 


too, the ground 


° -r- 

48 X 


kbng, artisan, 
time 



31 



49 tj ° chi, self 

50 rtl chin, cloth 

51 "p" /vuw.shield.spear 

52 j£^ */l*£n ; source 
58 o/ y*W, hut 

54 jf- feow, long walk 

55 Q V I A'o«(/ . higher 

ft 

yi£h . spear 



5G V 

57 *"^/ to.7- » 



bow 



58 



59 



. kway } Come! 



saw, coal 



^ 



60 -q ghuang-jin, two 

„ HUM) 

iV 

61 j|_j\ sw, heart 

62 ^5 A'o/' ■ a lance 

63 I 11 ' ic'oO . inner door 

(54 "4 sheu, hand 

05 "^ /;'. branch 

00 3C c/ii. the stalk 

07 > >C- ftmw ■ gentle 

►8 o*"| fo?/, ;i measure 

39 /T ('/////. hatchet. 

o ■ . pound 

~ i{) /I fa ny . a square. 

° ^c tnt ' u 

>/L f'e. no 



»;s 



73 I J t/i<e/i, to talk 

74 ji| yueh, moon 

75 7|Vo wo/i, tree 

76 ^/^ ehien, debtor 

77 _1_L te', to stop 
7g /p tie , wicked 

79 ^C ^ » ** ie >' oun 8 

° of animals 

80 "W f'6, ia not 

81 Jt? P'j to compare 
*2o ~~t ///0 "- feather 

83 i^t w • dan 

84 w i ''/". air 

85 7j\ shway, water 
86 /\ <7m<r. fire 

87 /IV /.so'<. «'law>. nails 

88° ^C /"' ;// - f * ther 

89 o >C .V "'- Bi g n 

90 ^"J clucany . pole 

91 o / = i /j/V'/? ? splinter 

92 >f //a/*, teeth 

9<*><)l '"'"• (,x 

94 7\L elf en. dog 



97 j5^ kwah, melon 

98 ^PL wa/i, tiles, 

■ ■ earthenware 



99 


Ho 


fcan, sweet 


100 


£o 


senn. to live, to 




» An 


give birth 


101c 


ijbng, to use 


102 


Ho 


tien, field 


103 


5° 


/)/c/l piece 


104 


* o 


/sj£/i ; sick 


105 


Ko 


fall, to divide 


106 


a„ 


bull , white 


107 


,J£ 


6/. skin 



71 



95 "r^ t/tt&I, intermin- 
72 P s7/c// . sun. dav i M j jh m ,V/. 



able 
gem 



108 «Uu» mifi; implement 

109 B ° mbh , eye 

110 o^ //mu// . spear 

111 ^^ ,s7//. arrow 

112 ^ o .s/i/VV/ ; stone 

-~~~- o 

113 M\ .S3, to admonish 

114 P*J nulitj or shbh, 
.— clapper of a bell 

115o^K haw, grain 

116 /Vq, yueh. cave 

117 .lLo //p. to stand 

118 I J r//o/* ; bamboo 
11!) o ^l\. mi, rice 

120 ?!> s's ; silk 



32 



121 -fff fow, jar 


145 ^fc t, clothing 


169 pH mim, a door 


122°|)(){J kang, hedge 


146 ffi i/«w, twilight 


170 JpL fou, a mound 


123 gcr yang? sheep 


147 S chien, to see 


171 o^J< <#> to accomplish 


124 "Ml ix, long feathers 


148 ° m krih, horn, cor- 
/ ' 1 ner 


172°^ chhih,ftne 
173 |>J\J y#, rain 


125 ^ too, old 


149 = nien, word 
o M 


126 Bj wr/i ; and 


150 ^St ^> a P ertures 
f— ' o in rocks 


174 FFJ tsin, green 

o ■ ■ 


127 H^ ^ e > handle of a 
/Tv spade 


151 g £ow, head 


175 ^f /fec^, not 

176 ]R\ mien, face 


128 tt- ull, the ear 


152 ^^ s/m ; swine 


129 :=&* y u ^ 1 ' to mani_ 

: T^*o fest, a baton 


153 J%f c hh superior or- 
^» der of animals 


177 ^P- o fc££, leather 


130 J^J yd/i, flesh 

131 ET c/im, an official 


154 J=4 pei^ valuables 

155 ^p cfte/i, red 


178 -^p /i^a?/ ; high 

179 3t c/ii'w, leeks 


132 13 °te% from one self 


156 /fco £so?i ; to walk 


180 o El yin,n sound, tone 


133 "3? ° isz > t0 arr * ve ' 
- 1 *- 1 extreme 


157 >^o tsbh, leg 


181 E3 hieh. a sheet, a 
"^Z leaf 

g , o 


134 H c/ww ; mortar 


158 J^ s hin. body 


182 /^J, fong, wind 


135 j5" c/w;e/z ; tongue 


159 o^ c/w, cart 


183° jfe fee, to fly 


136 ylf c/im/l, strong 


160 ° ^Jr SiW ; bitter, hard- 
ships 


184 "b£*° s/uV<. to eat 


137 7q" c/iM< ; vessel 


161 o^ ^ n ' anhour ' 
rt azure 


185 ||[ s/?ez/. head 


138 El kun , inferior or- 
-^ ° der of nature 


162 ^c tseu, to run 


186 ^2? shiang. scent 


139 |2 ° se/? ; colour 


163 Q y£ ( a town 


187 BiL »ma. horse 

Hi *\ 


140 (W tead , grass 


164 m yoo, twilight 


o M 

188 S* few«A; bones 


141 o f% r hoo, tiger 


165 7|\ £s/e, to separate 


189 ° "a" *«« > hi S h 
154 


142 3\ chong, insects 


166 Hi fi> one third °^ 
a mile 


190 *=/ fcoo; whiskers, 
o3*X beard 


143 IIIL shweh. blood 


167 ^E^ o c/mw. gold, metal 


191 tg /om. to fight 


# — o 

144 'f^f j£/i ; to walk, to 
act 


168 ]^ c/?«?i#, long 


192 vSM cluing, sweel 
o ^J wine 



33 



193 Ugi Ueh, to cup 
nr-* o open 

xy kway, devil 



195 4& nit, fish 
o <m 

196 F^. niciu . bird 



197 



/oo, brine 



jffi Q ft//. Btac 



201 



hwang, yellow 208 ^ ° chii, rat 



202 i^L s/i^'o millet 
o ~T\ 

203 M f M/«, black 

UkvO 

204 "fRF C^r, embroidery 



209 



pi'eh, nose 



205 



210 ^7JtS ° tsi, to put in or- 
*i der, equal 

211 1^=1 te 3, the back 
*■ — * teeth 



nun. a toad 212 n& fo»£'i dragon 



199 

200, 



mkh . wheat 



//w. hemp 



206 fffr ^»i tripod 
7 o ?^s /<oo. drum 



20 



213 



fojoay, tortoise 



rfa //»//. a musical 

TO ° instrument 



aEITHMBWCAL FIGURES. 

All arithmetical combinations are performed by 17 Cardinal figures. In the subjoined 
table, three dim-rent forms of numerical characters arc given. The series in the left 
column represents the plain hand which serves t*<»r literary and ordinary purposes. In the 
middle column ioord!i are employed instead of figures. This class is used in bonds, con- 
tracts etc., where it is of importance to guard against alterations and fraud. The figures 

in the right column, written in a "running band*, arc osed by merchants and traders iii 

keeping their business accounts. 



^*- o ■ 


1 


+ #+ 


Sluuh. 10 




•J 


S 


°15 


y;f'//. 100 


.. - 4y 1 1 ] uai . 


3 


■t 


=* 


(Slfa, 1000 


m if ° * t% 


4 




7? 


Uflfl, 10,000 


£ o ^ E « -. 


5 




fc 


ee, 100,000 


a m . •* »• 


G 


* 


« 


chad, 1,000,000 


J£ ^° ^L= tsic. 


7 


^" 


o <^| 


chin, 10,000,000 


A°l = pUh ' 




* 


*' 


nijah, 100,000,000 



% ^L° % <* 



etc 



The numbers by which 10, 100 etc. are multiplied are placed at the top of the multiplicand. 
The numbers added to ten etc.. are marked below the figure. 

Example -f- ten - ~\~ twice ten and two, or 22. 



(This type 



IN 

was cut under the 



34 



JAPANESE 

the K ATA -KAN A chaeactek. 

direction of Prof. J. Hoffman of Leyden and cast by N. Tettekodi; 
in Eotterdam.) 



I- EG -FA 


(Ab 


c). 




The Japanese Alphabet 
organically arranged. * 


•25 # yi 


1 


<\ 


1 


1 7 a 


25 if se 


49 >< ba 


26 J no 


2 


t? 


ro 


2 y wa 


26 "p ze 


50 /-I pa 


27 t 


3 


/^ 


fa, \a 


3 3. e 

4 -i i 


27 is si 

28 & zi 


51 ^ fe 

52 -s: be 


28 ? ku 


4 


- 


ni 


5 tf o 


29 7 SO 


53. ^< pe 


29 ^V ya 


5 


£ 


fo 


6 ^ WO 


3o y zo 


54 \L fl 


30 v ni a 


6 


>^^ 


fo, ve 


7 ^ 1. 


31 % su 


55 £* bi 


31 ^ ke 


7 


K 


to 


8 -V ya 


32 X ZU 


56 ir pi 


32 y fu 


8 


f 


Isi 


9 X ye 
10 # yi 


33 9 ta 

34 -9 da 


57 £ fo 

5a :£ l)o 


33 3 k() 


9 


9 


ri 


11 3 yo 


35 r te 


59 3"> po 


34 X ye 


10 


* 


mi 


12 2. yu 


36 r de 


go y fu 


35 t te 


11 


n/ 


ru 


13 J? ka 


37 f- tSI 


61 *? bU 


36 T a 


12 


■^ 


w o 


14 #' ga 


38 f dsi 


62 w ' : pu 

63 ^- na 

64 ^ ne 
6f — ni 

1 6 / no 

67 5< nu 

68 ^ n 


37 t sa 

38 df ki 

39 3. y U 

40 ^ me 


13 

14 
15 

16 


7 


w o 
ka 
yo 
da 


15 $r ke 
LO ? ge 

17 ^ ki 

18 ^ gi 

19 3 ko 


39 }> to 

40 K do 

41 y tsu 

42 5?" dsu 

43 »T ma 


41 £. mi 


17 


u 


re 


20 I/' go 


44 -* me 


69 > ra 


42 1/ si 

43 3. e 


18 
19 




tsu 


21 ^ ku 

22 >r gU 

23 ^r sa 


- 1 mi 

46 °t mo 

47 2* mu 


w re 
7i 9 ri 

72 a ro 


44 £ fi, vi 


20 


: t- 


ne 


24 4f za 


* fa 


73 H/ Ml 


45 ^ mo 


21 


f 


na 


* The accent nig or i, consisting of two minute marks at tin 


46 if se 


22 


~7 


ra 


right of the syllable, softens the consonant. The accent mnrn, 


47 2 SU 




L 




a dot likewise at the right, hardens the consonant. By tin 


23 


mu 


addition of these marks and the », unattended by a vowel. 




24 


& 


u 


the letter- original] 


y -47. are raised to th 


1 number of 



ABBREVIATIONS AND ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 
1 koto. "T goto. i site. 3- tama. 

^ Sign of doubling a letter, placed in the middle line. 
( Sign of doubling a syllable. 
| Sign of lengthening a vowel. 



Full stop. % comma, towards the right, bey< nd the middle Inn 



35 



SANSCRIT 



CONSONANTS. 


VOWELS. 


Each consonant is sounded with an inherent 

short a. 


The vowels in the left row are uttered as initials 

or are placed before their consonants. The vowel- 

- in the right division being medials and finals, 


GUTTURALS 


LABIALS 


coalesce with their consonants, and are respec- 
tively p.aced over, under, before and after 
the letters. 


^ ka 
13T kha 
JT ga 
ST gha 


qr pa 
qpf pba 
of ba 
>T bba 


ST a 

V 1 

r 

3 » 

3 fi 

ft r 

H r 

^ 1 


COALESCENT TOWELS, 

' a follows the consonant 
f. 

\ 1 precedes n » 


1 ii a 


*T nia 


T 1 follows ,) 


PALATALS. 

tX cha 
^ ch'ha 
sT ja 
T\ j'ha 


BEMI-VOWELS 

•ST ya 
7 ra 

r?T la 

3" va 


•O 11 under 
c 11 


OT 11 a 






ml 

-,1 








CEREBRALS 


8IBILANT8 in 


DIPHTHOK 




Z la 


A8PIB \ I i> 


7 •' 


- i\ over 


7T (ha 

T da 
£ dha 


ST slia 
V( sh'ha 
*R" sa 


V ai 
SIT o 


~ ai 

T follows 


W na 


^ ha 


HI an 


l a " ' ' 


DENTALS. 

fT (a 
ET tha 


3E: i 

This character peculiar 
to the Rig-Veda 1 
sound which part 
of / and i ■ It st ants ior 
the cerebral da. When 
it represents thi 

rate of this letter, it is 

expressed i>y <e* (///«). 


NASAL BOUNDS. 

Anus vara and w Anunasika, 

are substitutes for m and «. The anunasika has 
its place above the letter or laterally with virama 
underneath. 


£ da 

*J dha 
^T na 


J h (or properly!) visarga, 4- jihvamuliya 
and % upadbmaniya, 

are Btrong final aspirates. The visarga which is 
the substitute for » and /• is tlie only one in com- 
mon use. The last two signs bear also the com- 
mon designation of ardhaviaarga. 


ADDITIONAL BION8. 
"■ Virama (pause) is placed under a final con- 
- ii nit . and denotes tha absence of the inhe- 
rent short a. 


PBOSODIAL MASKS. 

| denotes brevity, J length. 


| indicates the dose <ii' a sentence, ending in 
a vowel, a diphthong or a visarga. In poetry it 
denotes the half of a verse. At the end of a 
verse or a period this mark is doubled j|. 

^ -lives 1. as the sign of hiatus, 2. as sign of 
the elision of a after >- and <., I!, as the sign 
of coalescence of two o. 

o is the sign of abbreviation. 

r and -* represent the Letter /•. The former sign 
is pronounced before the consonant (and the 
semivowel ri) at the top of which it is placed; 
the latter sign is placed under the consonant 
and sounded ifter it. 


ACCENTS. 
_ Anudatta or grave accent stands under the vowel. 
rita or circumflex is put over the vowel. 
In connexion with these marks the numerals 
y and H serve as accents. 


NI'ME 

1 2 3 4 5 


RALS. 

$ O K § 

6 7 8 



36 



SANSCEIT 



The similarity of shape occasions mistakes in correcting proofs; it may therefore be of advantage both to 

compositors and readers of proofs to make use of the annexed numbers of reference. The form of the 

subjoined Alphabet differs from that which precedes, but is superior in point of correctness. 



1 ^ 


a 


27 -sir 


re(withAcc) 


53 ^ 


kja 


79 U 


nka 




2 m 


a 


28 **J 


ai(witMca) 


54 35 


kra 


80 w 


likta 




3 \ 


i 


29 *fc 


raim 


55 SR 


kra 


81 ^J 


rikya 




«s 


« 


30 : 




56 15 


kla 


82 f 


rikslia 




5 ^ 


u 


31 ♦ 




57 « 


kva 


S3 3 


ri kha 




6 ^ 


u 


32 w 




58 ^ 


ksha (x) 


84 ST 


rikhya 




7 W 


ri 


33 | 


> 


59 ^ 


ksh 


85 W 


riga 




8 ^ 


ri 


34 || 


CD 


60 "^T 


kslima 


86 wn 


ligya 




9 ^5 


n 


35 o 


CO 

P 


61 -^ 


ksliya 


87 ff 


ligha 




10 ^ 


ji 


36 - 


o 


62 ^T 


kshva 


88 ^ 


iighya 




ii TJ 


e 


37 S 


CD 
■1 


63 ^ 


kha 


89 -J- 


ii ghra 




12 t 


a 


38 * 


O 

2 


64 ^ 


kh 


90 f 


liiia 




13 f 


i 


39 s 


3 1 

o 


65 T^f 


khya 


91 ^ 


cha (ca 




u*l 


i 


40 + 




66 T\ 


ga 


92 x> 


ch (c) 




15 T 


ri 


41 - 


§L 


67 X 


g 


93 ^ 


cca 


16 v*> 


u 


42 i 


co 

eg' 


68 ^ 


gna 


94 ^ 


ccha 




17 c\ 


u 


43 * 


3 

CO 


69 1% 


gnya 


95 ? 


ciia 




18 c 


ri 


44 K 




70 ^ 


gra 


96 ^ 


cm a 




19 6 


fi 


45 « 




71 zq- 


grya 


97 xlj 


cya 




20 *2 


Ii 


46 ^{ 


ka 


72 U 


gha 


98 ^ 


cha 




21 oj> 


ji 


47 ^ 


kka 


73 T 


gh 


99 ^ 


chra 




22 -s 


e 


4« ^R 


kta 


74 Jf 


ghna 


100 if 


ja 




23 ^ 


ai 


49 ^ 


ktja 


75 tjj 


ghma 


101 5 j 




»i 





50 ^ 


ktva 


76 TZI 


ghya 


102 15T 


jja 




25 -si 


e (with Ace.) 


51 15 


kna 


77 ^ 


ghra 


103 ^ 


jfia 




26 ■* 


re 


52 ^q 


kma 


78 ^ 


ria 


104 5 


j» 





37 



SANSCRIT 



105 -tffj 


ii^a 


i 
133 ^ff 


ndra 


161 ^ 


th 


189 


V* 


dhya 


106 5Ef 


jya 


134 JJff 


ndrya 


162 ^Zf 


thya 


190 


U 


dhra 


107 15f 


jra 


135 ^ 


ndha 


163 ^ 


da 


191 


^ 


dhva 


10S 55 


jva 


136 ^ 


nna 


164 ^ 


du 


192 


R 


na 


109 1^ 


jha 


137 ^ 


nya 


165 £ 


du 


193 


* 


n 


110 ^ 


jha 


138 JJf 


nva 


166 ? 


dri 


194 


tT 


nta 


ill 3? 


fia 


139 fT 


ta 


167 ^ 


dga 


195 


t*T 


ntya 


112 > 


fi 


140 r 


t 


168 f 


dgha 


196 


^ 


ntra 


113 3f 


iica 


i4i 3; 


tka 


169 ^ 


(Ida 


197 


^ 


nda 


"* ^ 


nja 


142 ^ 


tta 


170 I 


ddba 


198 


^ 


ndra 


115 ^ 


ta 


143 ^ 


ttva 


171 q 


ddya 


199 


^ 


ndha 


116 J 


tka 


HI ^T 


ttra 


172 ^ 


dd ha 


200 


^ 


ndhra 


117 I 


tta 


145 ^ 


ttva 


173 5J 


ddhya 


201 


^ 


nna 


118 251 


(va 


140 \>T 


tna 


174 ^ 


diia 


202 


■* 


npra 


119 J 


(ha 


NT jq 


(pa 


175 ^ 


dba 


203 


*f> 


nplia 


120 35J 


thva 


l" W 


tpra 


176 ^ 


dbra 


204 


^ 


nphra 


121 J 


thra 


119 TO 


t))ha 


177 ^ 


dbha 


205 


*T 


nma 


itJ 5 


(la 


IM TO 


tphra 


173 ^ 


dbhya 


200 


*l 


nya 


133 f 


(Ida 


151 m 


tina 


179 ^ 


dma 


207 


*a 


nsa 


124 3" 


(Ida 


152 fWf 


tmya 


ISO ^ 


dva 


208 


XI 


pa 


125 <J 


(Jha 


153 HI 


tya 


1S1 £ 


dra 


209 


X. 


P 


™ gj 


dhva 


154 ^ 


tra 


182 jgf 


dry a 


210 


* 


pta 


127 ^ 


dhra 


155 ^f 


trya 


183 ^ 


dva 


211 


* 


pna 


123 tjj 


na 


1?0 t^ 


tva 


184 U 


dvy a 


212 


T*T 


ppa 


129 ^ 


n 


157 f*T 


tsa 


185 \| 


dha 


213 


T?T 


pma 


130 J£ 


nta 


158 \^ 


tsna 


1S6 \ 


.11. 


214 


t*( 


PJ a 


131 TJ5 


nl ha 


159 r^f 


tsya 


187 tf 


(lima 


215 


JT 


pra 


132 ?J5 


nda 


160 ^J 


tha 


188 VR 


(II una 


216 


5T 


pla 









38 






- 


1 - 




SANSCRIT 








217 iq 


pva 


245 J\ 


ya 


273 ^ 


9ra 


301 ^Ff 


sma 


213 ^f 


psa 


246 1 


J 


274 ^ 


9la 


302 ^q 


smya 


219 Tfi 


pha 


247 ^ 


J 


275 "5^ 


9va 


303 ^q 


sya 


. 220 "q 


ba 


248 sq 


JJ a 


276 ^ 


99a 


304 ^ 


sra 


221 © 


b 


249 ^ 


ra 


277 q 


sha 


305 ^ 


sva 


222 aq 


bgha 


250 ^ 


ni 


27S ^ 


sh 


306 ^ 


ssa 


.223 ^f 


bja 


251 ^ 


ru 


279 ? 


shta 


307 ^ 


ha 


224 T5g 


bcla 


252 ^ 


la 


280 T5J 


shtya 


308 ? 


1. 


225 3q 


bdha 


253 ^ 


1 


2SJ |T 


shtra 


309 <£ 


hri 


220 f 


bba 


254 ^ 


Ika 


2S2 ^ 


shtrya 


310 ^ 


hna 


227 oVT 


bbha 


255 <*q 


Ipa 


283 ^ 


shtrya 


311 £ 


hna 


22S -% 


bra 


256 ^ 


lma 


284 ? 


shtva 


312 ^r 


hma 


229 *f 


bba 


257 t*q 


lya 


285 "^ 


slU ha 


313 ^J 


hya 


230 *■ 


bh 


258 ^ 


11a 


286 ^Tf 


slina 


314 ? 


lira 


231 >q- 


bhya 


259 t*q 


lva 


2S7 "Of 


slip a 


315 1 


lila 


232 ^ 


bhra 


260 of 


va 


28S "BCf 


slipra 


316 ^ 


hva 


233 *q 


bhva 


261 


V 


289 Iff 


shina 


317 3^ 


I 


234 Tf 


ma 


262 «$ 


V 


200 ^f 


shya 


3IS ^ 


lha 


235 I 


m 


263 «q 


vya 


291 ^ 


sa 


319 Cj 


\ 


236 ^ 


mria 


264 ^ 


via 


292 ^ 


s 


320 ^ 


2 


237 pj 


mpa 


265 if 


vva 


293 ^j 


ska 


321 $ 


3 


238 JXJ 


mpra 


266 ^r 


9a 


294 ^ 


skha 


322 tf 


4 


239 lg 


mba 


267 ^ 


9a 


295 ^ 


sta 


323 q 


5 


240 W( 


mblia 


268 ^ 


9 


296 ^gf 


stra ■ 


324 % 


6 


241 151 


mya 


269 * 


V 


297 ^SJ 


stha 


325 v9 


t 


242 J5T 


mra 


270 ^5 


90 a 


298 ^ 


sua 


326 t 


S 


243 ^ 


mla 


271 ^f 


9<'ya 


299 ^q 


spa 


327 Q 


9 


244 JQ 


msa 


272 ^ 


911a 


300 ^q; 


spba 


32S 









3 l J 



TAMIL 



The Tamil language was earlier cultivated than the other members of the Dravidian family. 
It includes two dialects the (ancient) Shen-Tamil and the (modern) Kodun -Tamil. Tamil 
is spoken throughout the plain of the Carnatic, below the ghauts from Pulicat to cape Co- 
morin, to the neighbourhood of Trivandrum; also in the northern and western part of 
Ceylon where in ancient times Tamilians established their settlements. This language has 
12 vowels and 18 consonants. It is read from left to riffht. 



SHORT VOWELS. 

3 as in America 

i d » fill 

U » d full 

e » « self 
long 



D 

9 

THE CORRESPONDING LONG 1T0WELS. 



<SJ 

§> 

a? 

hi 

4p 

I 

<ScD/ 

A 

U 
LL 

P 
657 



in ah 
■ feel 

, thej 
sole 



DIPHTHONGS. 

ej in eye 
Oil d foul 



CONSONANTS. 



k 

n 

s 

h 

t 

n 

t 

I! 

P 
m 

r 

u 



•i- gn in frencb i 

Like t d <>i Sanscrit cerebralt 

like n of Sanscrit cerebral 



rolled partly like a cerebral. 

partly like a dental 



LIQUIDS. 



UJ 


\ 


as in yes 


rr 


r 


>. » round 


sv 


1 


a i> lap 


su 


V 





The consonants have been divided into roug h, 

soft and intermediate sounds. The first class 
includes the temies («, <£, t-L , @ , U, p). 
The second class contains the corresponding 
Nasals. The third class contains the Liquids. 
A dor placed at the top of a consonant indi- 
cates the absence of a vowel , hut is omitted 
in native MSS. 



'off 1 hard, it is of cerebral character 

Lp 1 intermediate between r ami 1. 



The following rules are to be not iced in 
the pronunciation. 

iorl a. before the sofl letters sot, ggoi-, 
the intermediate letters ff", 6tf, ST), tp, and 
at the end of polysyllabic words, sounds like 
6 in men. 

h Combined with a preceding fl it receives 
the same sound. 

c The vowels e and e as initials are pro- 
nounced as \ty were placed before tlicm. 

d) The vowels i (!) and e (e) before Unguals 
(lL, 6ot? and <sfr, p and ffi] are respectively 
articulated somewhftl deeper than the French 
it and eu. 

e The consonants <ff.^, u are onl) har- 
dened as initial letters, or when doubled in the 
middle of a word. The same is the case with 
/_ which does not occur as an initial in pure 
Tamil words. 

t When <£ ■ lL . ^, u occur as medials oi 
a word. ,j sounds like ch . Cj like 6, § like 
tii. and L l like the Sanscrit cerebral d. 

g) <£ is always sharply hissed like ss. When 
the nasal (GJ precedes, it coalesces with it and 
sounds like ng (in angel). When doubled after 
lL . or p. it sounds like ch (in church). 

h) e and y at the end of a syllable have an 
intermediate sound of i, (in vine) and a* (in 
vain). 

i) Double jb sounds like tt. After the cor- 
responding nasal <^, it may be pronounced 

like d 



40 



The Tamil Alphabet being syllabic, a word is divisible in any part, so long as the con- 
sonant remains united with its vowel. In punctuation the full stop alone is employed. 

The vowels, in their separate forms, are only used as initials. The following table 
shows their mode of coalition whith the consonants. The short a, as in Sanscrit, is not 
expressed before a consonant. 



i 


a 


a 


i 


i 


U 


u 


e 


e 


e .y 





1 

i 


<-£/ 


«=» 


D 


FT 


£_ 


2X5TT 


61 


<5J 


m 


9 


k 


d& 


<s/r 


Q 


8 


<S 


<&_ 


0<35 


Q& 


65)& 


Q&fT 


n 


!Ei 




















s 


8= 


&(T 


9 


& 


3r 


© 


Q& 


Q& 


65)& 


Q&rr 


n 


& 


(<5Tjl 


(djl 


S 


&J 


M" 


0(^5 


Q(6T) 


65>(6T) 


Q(6Jj[T 


t 


L_ 


L_/7 


f 


L& 


® 


9 


Oz_ 


<Ji_ 


65)1— 


Qi—f] 


n 


<bMI 


(655) 


sssfl 


<o®si 


655)i 


655)[J 


Q<o5$l 


Q<sm 


So55T 


Q(655) 


t 


P 


p(T 


)B 


$ 


M 


&ir 


Qp 


Qa, 


65)3) 


Q<£(1 


ii 


P 


/5f1 


jB 





M 


M 


Qj5 


QjB 


6S)J5 


QjBfT 


P 


U 


LJfT 


lS) 


d 


H 


\A 


Qu 


Qu 


65)U 


Qua 


m 


LL 


LD/7 


u9 


iS 


(hp 


& 


Old 


Qll 


65) LD 


Qldi 


y 


IU 


iun 


uSi 


iS 


lL i 


U 


Quj 


Quj 


<5$)IU 


Qiurr 


r 


J 


nn 


ffi 


if 


(5 


© 


Qn 


Qn 


65)11 


QlTfT 


1 


6V 


6vn 


o9 


<sS 


m 


SSf 


Qsv 


Qsv 


gsv 


Qsvn 


V 


611 


GlIfT 


afl 


a? 


(51] 


& 


Q(su 


Qqj 


65) SU 


QsUfT 


1 


kP 


Lpfl 


ffl 





OP 


<w 


Old 


QlP 


65)Lp 


Old/7 


1 


<sn 


<srrn 


6lfl 


61? 


& 


(m> 


QfrtT 


Qm 


%srr 


Oar/r 


r 


P 


& 


fSl 


$ 


J27 


jyr 


Qp 


Qp 


65)p 


Qqt? 


n 


65T 


& 


(ssfl 


65? 


M* 


®pir 


Qgst 


Q<55T 


Ssw' 


0@) 



Qsrr 

Q&n 
Qi_i 

Q(655) 

Qprr 
Qprr 
Quit 

GW 
QlUfT 

Quit 
Q5V1 
Q<sun 

G?LD/T 
Q<5YT1 

Q(ff- 



au 

<°p6YT 

Ocssyr 

0(65 ar 

0/_6YT 

Qgsstgk 
Qpsrr 

Qusrr 
Old or 

QlUQfT 

Qy<5tr 

Q<svsrr 

0<SU5Yr 

OLpsyr 
Oarar 
Qpsrr 

Q 651' SIT 



ADDITIONAL LETTERS AM) CONTRACTIONS. 



6l£ 61^, (Sl^l 6$ 6111) 6KV 



U$ r (^ 



) <Sl_ 



sh sha shi shi s sa ch Month Year Om a 



word 



NUMERALS. 

4 2_ /lw ^ (§ <St CT <_£/ <&» u) n & 

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 100 1000 

Examples of compound numbers, ids = 11, u)a_ = 12 etc. 



41 





ZEND 






BURMESE 




POEM 


SOUND 


FORM 


SOUND 


VOWELS 










FORM 


SOUND 


FORM 


SOUND 


A> 


a 
a 




z 
fi 










AX) 


33 


a 


G 


e 


J 


i 


K> 


t 


32>Q 


a 


33 


ey 


T> 


i 


? 


t 


s\ 


ie 


G@0 


au 


) 


u 


(^ 


th 


si 


ee 


g(So^ 


au 


9 


u 


v-o 


d 


§ 


u o 


o 

35) 


an 


P 


e (e) 


S 


dh 


O 

2 


u 00 


35>0§ 


ah 


E 


e 


/ 


D 
























CONSONANTS 




» 


e 
o 




P 
f 








*, 


oo 


k 


3 


d 


V 


o 


j ; 


b 


s> 


kh 


O 


dh 


(MS 


ito 


« 


in 


o 


g 


? 


n 


« 


an 


c 


> initial 


>JD 


gh 


o 


1> 










c 


ngdt gn 


a 


ph 


3 


k 


jj 


y mi'tlial 




















ch 


o 


b 


(S* 


kh 


7 


r 


30 


chli 


00 


bh 


t? 


q 


6 


\ initial 


S 


j 


o 


m 


(2 


g 


)^ 


. v medial 


Ql 


|i 


00 


y 


t 


gh 


erff 


w 


e° 


n 


°l 


r 


jS 


ii 


. JS 


V 


? 


t 


CO 


1 


? 


c (ch) 


EP 


sh 


s 


th 


o 


vv 













d 


00 


s 


k 


j 


M3 


j; 


1 
















V 


dh 


oo 


h 


& 


sh 


<ya 


b 


















OD 


n 


8 


\ 










PUNCTUATION. 


OO 


t 


33 


an 











oo 


th 










42 



CANARESE (carnataca). 

This language, belonging to the Dravidian family, is spoken throughout the plateavi of Mysore , 
some of the western districts of the Nizam territory, and in the district of Canara on the 

Malabar coast. 



© a 


£ 


e 


& 


nga 


6 


ta 


C& ra 


fcP a 


£> 


ai 


4 


cha 


s> 


tha 


^ ra 


3 i (ee) 


& 





i 


chha 


6 


da 


S la 


J&> i (ee) 


1) 


6 


83 


ja 


£ 


dha 


o$ va 


& u (oo) 


3-W 

2o 


au 


1 


jha 


* 


na 


g sa 


(6^ u (66) 


O 


ii 


r^» 


na 


2S 


pa 


(^ sha 


<UX> f 


♦ 


h 


& 


t'a 


£ 


pha 


$ za 


%xyr r' 


* 


ka 


<s 


t'ha 


© 


ba 


T^ 3 ha 


f 1 


SO 


kha 


6 


d'a 


tf 


bha 


^ la 


r r 


K 


ga 


i 


d'ha 


3$ 


ma 


6© sha 


«d e 


i 


gha 


on? 


n'a 









LIGATURES 



4 ki 


<Tf) 


fiu 


6T5 


da 


£ 


una 


ST° va 


?fu ku 


C? 


d'e 


& 


di 


t» 


pu 


€) vu 


•firo ko 


tf<l 


d'o 


<S? 


di 


%' 


pra 


©"• V6 


^ kslia 


§ 


ti 


& 


de 


xfc 


bhu 


/ - 


rr^ « a 


8? 


ti 


v^ 


dri 


& 


mma 


*F Vr " 


A tf 


s£ 


tu 


£ 


n 


o* 


• 
ra 


|p vai 


* « u 


1 


te- 


$? 


n a 


■6 


re 


§p vvu 


£ ge 


* 


tai 


S 


n i 


(Oj-T> 


la 


J^ sha 


ft? «* 


§2 


ttu 


S? 


iii 


03~^ 


lu 


& slit 'a 


^ gai 


i 


tie 


^ 


11 u 


3<z 


16 


&7 ho 


^ * 


4 


tra 


i- 


ne 


■s 


va 





43 



GUJERATI or GUZERATTEE. 

This Alphabet is derived from the Sanscrit (Devanagari) characters , from which it principally differs 
in the omission of the connecting lines. Gujerati is spoken in the province of Gujerat (Guzerat) , espe- 
cially by the Parsee inhabitants, and is considered to be the mercantile language of Western India. In 
modern times various Gujerati publications have appeared in Bombay. 





-2ft I ) 


^ 


cha 


Jt ta 


7>) 


3Hl) 










\ bha 


J a 
2/\l j 


&4 ° 


49 


cliha 


21 tha 


(Hj 


£ i (ee) 


OAl) 


2 


ja 

jha 
t'a 


<£ da 
$1 dlia 
«i na 


1^ ma 
(\ va 
Ct la 


% ka 


I 


t'ha 


H Pa 


2- ra 


\ *■ 


U\ kha 


6 


d'a 


% pha 


">d sa 


■3A \ e (ai) 


91 ga 


G 


d'ha 


£| ba 


*l ra 




61 gba 


U* 


o'a 




^ ha 



LIGATURES 



villi 

dm 



XI id 

^ glu, 

6^ gin". 

<(f chi 

^ elm 

<£^] chhi 

^9 chlm 

^ clihu 



«10ji 


$ J" 




JjJ, jllll 




J «'" 


il t'hi 


J *'"" 


£di 


^ d-n 


£ ,ru 


<£l «* 


^ d'hu 


^ d'hu 



llrt Hi 


^ ,11 ' 1 


S vn 


lg> «•» 


^1 pi 


1 v,i 


Ilk 


y,p» 


«a.n 


sfl ti 


^j"' 


<i r. 


-3 »» 


Vrt PW 


41 ri 


$k trt 


£ Phu 


2(1 thi 


^ Ph« 


J '•" 


3> *' 


oflbi 


^ >'••• 


^ b " 


^1 i 


<£ di 


^ '"■' 


3, ™ 




7A bhi 


^i s '"' 


/ H blm 


*d Si 


efl dhi 


/H blift 


Sj, S* 


£j dim 


l(l mi 


% s* 


ft dim 


3 m " 


§lhi 


,flni 


Tjmfi 


Jr 1 "- 


1 "" 


41 vi 


^ N 



44 



TELUGU 



one of the branches of the Drftvidian stock, is spoken along the eastern coast of India from the neigh- 
bourhood of Pulicat to Chicacole. Inland it extends to the eastern boundary of the Maratha Coun- 
try and Mysore, including within its range the ceded districts and Kurnool, the greater part of. the 
territories of the Nizam, the Hyderabad Country and a portion of the Nagpore Country. This language 

is spoken by about 14 millions. 



© a 


© e 


Snga 


^ ta 


*5 ra 


feP a 


J 8 


£5 cha 


£•> tha 


O la 


3 i (ee) 


2o o 


\£ chha 


2S da 


£5 va 


5* i (ee) 


lo 6 


& ja 


<*> dha 


q> sa 


& u (oo) 


Ij uo 


Cfo jha 


^ na(soft) 


^ sha 


feW ti (65) 


o h 


££* nya 


^3 pa 


•£ sa 


°a^ r 


: h . 


6) t'a 


o$ pha 


£p>ha 




1§ ka 
p kha 
X ga 


5 -t'ha 

£§ d'a 

C§ d'ha 
i 


o Da 
(tjS* bha 
53 ma 


gT^a 

Cj3 sha 

\ Pause 


o!i e 


aa gha 

i 


£® n'a(hard) 


CJSSya 





LIGATURES 



y ka 


Tfty° jha 
i 


(3r> ma 


a ti 


ct© 1 ' K 


5o ku 

r°ko 


OdJ° jhi 


&s mi 


§ ti 


ex3 in 


sSb^Jhu 


2& mu 
33 me 


3o tu 

B te 


A Ha 


(3$l ksha 


ar na 


S£> mo 


S> ttu 


g Hi 


7\ ge 


2>nu 








7^> & 


^5~> n a 


S&k mmu 


^J tra 


cO u va 


"A S au 


§> ni 


d3or> ya 


c5"3 da 


tf vu 


C^r>gha 
i 


|> ni 
S$S nu 


So ye 


& di 
Z&du 


"5) ve 


^ ghu 


3 ne 


S^y° 


"a de 


gswu 


5^5- ** 


3x mia 


TT> ra 


5^ do 
g> ddu 


eg Si 


25° n § a 

<£u ngu 


Sr> po 


ri 


^ sha 


§? ppu 


2^> nu 


^° ddha 


£x* slit "a 


-gi clli 

x£> chu 

^3) che 


^ ba 

££ bu 

*C§5° bhu 


db t'e 
2o d'u 
(50 d'hu 


CjT3 dha 

6 ri 

30 ru 


£n> sa 
■^-d ssa 



45 



BENGALI. 



This Alphabet is based on the Devanagari character. In some instances the circular shape has been 

altered into an angular form, in others the form has been entirely changed. The Bengali language 

is less mixed than the neighbouring idioms. 



VOWELS. 




CONSONANTS. 




THE VOWELS 

sounded after the con- 


^3Ia 


J9 W 


"3> ka 


vq na 


SJ dha 


FT la 


sonants take their po- 
sition before, after 


WU 


& w • 


•$| kha 


fr ^ 


^ na 


^ va 
•*f sha 
T{ sa 
"^ sha 
"5 ha 


above and below their 
letters. They receive 


ii 


if e 


n ga 


& tha 


n pa 


in such cases the fol- 
lowing forms. 


^ f 


^ ai 


■^ gha 


5 da 


5c pha 


T 1 a follows its cons. 




° 


vg n ga 
•^ tsha 
-k tshha 

3\J a 


If dha 

*1 na 
^S ta 


^ ba 

v^ bha 
TT ma 


■ 1 precedes » » 
T 1 follows » » 


$• ri 


vSj^ang 


^ tha 


*T ya 


"5f khya 


<>v U is subjoined 


jri 


Kigali 


"? J'ba 


TT da 


3 ra 




(^ li » 

< ri »> » 
t ri „ 


OBSERV 


ATIONS. 




The vowel -sound of the short a is 


jt> r stands ander ;i consonant and is 


fJTJ C preoedes 


inherent in all consonants. 


pronounced after it. 




C ai " 


x (birdmj subjoined to a consonant 


o over a consonant, repn 


sents Us nasal 


causes the a to drop. A consonant 
moreover loses its &b] being attached 

to tilt; following consonant. 


sound. 
c\ denotes the word Ganesh. 


. take the cons. 
CI" in the middle. 

r*"> r.,1 take the cons. 

V» T ul in tlie middle. 

ci 111°* follows the 

& cons. 


J denotes y affixed to a consonant. 


(J denotes the name of God. 


s denotes r. it is placed at the top of 


| serves as a stop at 


the end of a 


the let! 


er, and Mum 


led before it. 


sentence 






all follows the cons. 



BUGIS 



is supposed to be the most ancient of the languages spoken in the island of Celebes. The same 
Alphabet is used in the Bfacassaz langc 



~? a 


x> ba 


ff* ra 


^ la 


*v ka 


— - ma 


tJ cha 


-^ wa 


-^ kha 


JO pha 


-o ja 


o sa 


~j ga 


^ ta 


sr a 


^> ha 


4* nga 


^ da 


£C chha 


^ ya 


rJ pa 


/-r* na 


2- ra 





Ever] consonant has an inherent vowel, with which it forms a separate syllable. 
The following vowels vary in position: 

T o before a letter. 
J i over a letter. 
1 after a letter, 
. u under a letter. 
un or at the top of a letter. 



46 



JAVANESE 



ORDINARY LETTERS 


INITIAL LETTERS 


Ordin. Form 


Pasangans 


Sound 


Ordin. Form 


Pasangans 


Sound 


. inn • • 


. . ~m . • 


. . ha . . 
. . na . . 
. . tva . . 


• • awn • • 




. . Na . . 


. (Kl 


'*..'■' 


. Tva. 
. . Ka . . 
. . Ta . . 

. . Sa , . 
. . Pa . . 
. .Nya. . 
. . Ga . . 
.. Ba . . 


• (JO) 


d 


• • (KV . . 

- - a^Ji • • 

aaa or a^ 


. in. • • 


<* 


ra 


" ' ca " 


. (Kin • • 


in 


. . ka . . 


. . (in . . 


(KL, 


da 


. .^ . . 


• • (ism • • 


^ 


ta 


. . (kJi . . 




. . sa . . 
. . wa . . 


. o • • 









la 




• (irui « • 




. (Ul . . 

. (LJ| • • 


00^ 


. . pa . . 
da 


UNCONNECTED VOWELS. 
fefc Ol <£) ^ <u 


■ as • • 


CJ 


. .dya. . 
va 


a i u e o 


. (um . . 


ADDITIONAL CONSONANTS. 


. OH . • 

• (EJ1 


■A; 


. .nya. . 
ma 


The following four letters, with the sign * (Sastrosiooro) 

at the top, occur in words derived from the Arabic, as 

there are no consonants in the Javanese Alphabet. 

which fully express these sounds. 


. . ann . . 





. .ga . . 
. .ba 
. .ta . . 
. . nga . . 

Pa-tyere\ re 
Nga-lctd, le 


(KIT Cha stands for the Arabic ~r c'lia 

O & 8 • 8 8 O f e 

& z & » > j ze 

ann gha . . » 8 £ ghain 


. 01 • 


' CO 

\<V\Aft/\AA/VA* 

• .J). 




aim (in. o [ 
4 2 3 


NUMERALS. 

6 61 ^ I'll (LS JLJU1 
4 5 6 7 8 9 



47 



VOWELS and DIACRITICAL SIGNS, 

called Sandangan. 



Form 


Name 


Sound and power 


. .°. . . 


Pepet 


e 


Q 


Ulu or Wulu 


i 


■->•■/ 


Suku 


u 


r 


Taling 


e 


. m 2 • 


Taling-Tarung 





•Jl 


Paten or Pankon 


(deprives a consonant of its vowel) 


■'•* •• 


Sagnyan ox Wignyan 


ll (at the end of a syllable) 


/ 


Tyety-a 


11 g (at the end Of ■ syllable) 


Layar 


1" (at the end of a syllable) 


■c-c- 


Tyakra 


1* (between a consonant and a BUC< 
; .ng letter) 


.-,}.. 


Km-t 


r6 (alter a consonant) 


■/td" 


Plnkal 


y (after a consonant) 



PODOS ok PADAS. 

Under this designation the Javanese writing contains the following signs: 



l'uilo luhur. With this sign superiors begin 
their letters tu inferiors. 



1'oJo madyo is used at the commencement 

Of letters by persons of equal rank. 



l'odo andap, with this superscription an in- 
ferior addresses a superior. 

Podo-bab stands at the beginning of a new 
paragraph. 



Podo-lingso, the usual stop at tin- end of 
a sentence or a detached word. In poetry 

it marks the end of verses, which are 

written consecutively like prose. It is 

doubled at the end of a section. 



!: Podo andegging lyrlatu or dirgo muraras occa- 
sionally replaces the Podo-lingso; mostly it 
accompanies numerals, and isolates them from 
the adjoining words. 

Ulu munta. When the vowel of a final syllable 
is an ulu, this character takes a Tyetifa in the 
centre. 

f Suku mendut. When the vowel of the last syl- 
-^ lable is a Sitku it takes this form. 



1 



I 



Dirgo mure is the name of the sign placed over 
the Taling or Taling- Taruny, when this vowel 
occurs in the final syllable. 

Vodo ujatyan anglegenno. Under this name the 
Taruny is employed as a sign of separation. 

Piaelep ingatembarg gede, serves to divide poetry. 



[Clfin UTi^q 



> Tfinnn^lon 



(m (m^tei 



Purwo-podo stands at the be- 
ginning of poems. 



Madyo -podo, at the beginning of a 
song following another, when the 
melody and the measure are changed. 



Wasono-podo at the end of 

a poem. 



4.8 



LIGATURES. 

The following ligatures consist of the (Vowel-) sings Suhu, Tyokro, Keret and Pinkal combined with the 
ordinary characters and Pansangans. The diacritical marks are also added. 



•5 


3 


J 


3 


J 


d 


fa 


a 


3 


y 


•5 


3 


J 


dl 


<3 


"3 


^ 


Oil 


■y 


o 

CJ 


dl 


J 


<& 


■3 


3 

am 

.3 


3 

3 
3 



Q> 
Q} 
'3 
fa 
fa 

-3 


™9 

C9 
eg 

G> 
g 


^1 
of 

Oil 


d 

ol 

cjjl 


"21 


ononri 

3 

■a 
a 

aaj) 
<3 

a 

■8 


3 

3 
™) 

raj 

3 


annn 

3 
3 

3 


o 
o 

3 

Q 
<3 


3 







21 

■a 


3 


as. 


uy 


■ ,K J 


cJ 





a 


IK JI 



e* 



o/ 



cv 



c^ a q/ 



a£ 



O The small pasangan Wo is placed below a letter standing in the third row. 

-* s s-3 These small diacritical marks are placed under auxiliary letters which stand in the 

third row. 
1 The short Layar is employed when there is no room for the large Layctr. 
^_ This mark is placed under the letters Wo and Ngo to form the vowels it and o. 



OBSERVATIONS. 



The Javanese language has 20 letters which are 
called Aksoro, Sastro or Tiarakan. They are written 
from left to right, without being joined together. 
By the many auxiliary letters, vowels and diacritical 
signs, the numbers of characters is considerably 
increased. The Fasangans, employed in the Alpha- 
bet, are in close connexion with the sign Paten, 
which in fact they replace. When a consonant 
occurs in the middle of a word, and is to be de- 
prived of its vowel, a Paten must be employed. To 



obviate a disjunction arising from the use of this 
sign, the Paten is omitted, but the letter, which 
follows the mute consonant, is changed in form or 
in position or in both. The substituting sign is 
then called Pasangan. The Pasangan* being mostly 
placed under the common letters, while some vow- 
els and diacritical signs figure above the letters, 
the Javanese writing runs within three rows. The 
position of a character in one row or an other is 
indicated in this Alphabet by the addition of dots. 



49 



TIBETAN 



Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


VOWELS. 










The Tibetan language is read from left to 


*! 


k 


53 


111 


right and has five vowels. The vowel a is 








inherent in the several consonants. When 










confusion is apprehended from the absence 


F 


kh 


c 


ts 


of a distinct a after the prefixes 

ZH T, Z3 5J 


«! 


S 


tsh 


the sign Q^ is inserted to denote a. The 




remaining vowels are written and named as 






5. 




follows, 


c 


ng 


8 


n gigu^i . 










Xi "° zhabs-kyu u 


* 


ch 


^ 


IV 


V drengbu e 

v naro o 

The gigu drengbu and naro are placed 


* 


clih 


Oy 


j (French) 


above their consonants, the zhabs-kyu below 
them. When double, the zhabs-kyu is pro- 
nounced uu or ow: double drengbu ay or 


5. 




3 




ie : double naro oo or ou. Gigu is often 


J 


z 


formed thus () 










A is placed below the letters. Ph is chang- 
ed by it into f : SS into x. Under the 


•=) 




a 




nya 


ha 


other letters it represents the vowel a: 








according to others it denotes u. 


— 








O placed over th , a and h denotes with 


9 


t 


U! 


3 


the first of these letters mce with the 






other two m. According to others it 




.1. 


5, 


r 


signifies ang- and ong. 




ACCENTS. 










\ guttural sign 


.* 


d 


aj 


I 


P palatal 

2- nasal » 


^ 


ii 




sli 


T sign of the singular number. 


SI 


PUNCTUATION. 


P 


s 


QJ)7 is an introductory sign. Besides 
-* — — * i this figure other varieties are in use. 










51 


ph 


9 


h 


T Comma. Two such signs are equal to a 
J full stop. Four such strokes, with "•.'•' 














between them, denote "the end". 


3 


b 


ct 


a 


X is inserted between the syllables. 
u o mark the stress of a word. 



Si 3 



LIGATURES. 




5 ©^ 



50 



MANTSHU 


a 
> 




CO 


a 


S 

o 
o 


^^1 ; rr *y ; ; J 


< ip -LP IP' -l?' rt- u- n r> i^ o <o «C u 


< rM v i^ n ^ i^ o <o <C 


V£^ ^lf>^^"rt fX^fc 


B 
a 




1> . 


"ca _=2 .2^ £ 


m co S§ s; 


s 

c 

P=4 


c 

Is 
£ 


i -v^ ^^ ^r ( ^ 


► «► ix b ' h> p t ►> t <t <{ <p *p -£ 


1 


l 'IT } % }'.$ }--** K -*''*-<9 * < 


T3 
a> 

a; 
C 

O 
o 

5 


^ r* ; •; f^~*7T~? <f *> 


a 
> 


) 





51 



flS » o 



< i o« 



» 3 .2 5-3 

Us © o 

Pi *" 



" Ei © - / 



i sere khergen 



S! -W K 1) 



I EH s & ? 



CO 

5 






1FH © s o .~ 3 





^(p-(pi^(p.(p(r^<?^ 


"3 
-3 

93 

s 


£ <M> <B ^ $ •$ $ ^ <? ^ 


3 


# $ $ $ # $ •$ $ ^ « ** 



&(U^<if&$-$<jf£<2tf 



■u rti ^ 



i^ o n 



»t ^ u? 



a; 
be 



n>£ 






fc 



> ^S N 



t 



rP 17 K +C 



r^^K^A^^^ 



•H 



>VS.'"S~* "$"*"* 



«3 









-= e3 



CO ^ 



I 



* % 



52 



MONGOLIAN 



CONSONANTS 



Initial 



Medial 



Final 



VOWELS 



Initial 



Medial 



Final 



Value 



5v 

5y 



C 

-A 

3 

A 

A" 




C 

1 

T 

L. 

•2 
fir 



t 



^l 



1 T 
J 



V 



11 

b 

ch Scotch 
gh guttural 
k 

g 

m 

1 

r 

t 

d 

y 
z ? 

ts 



"T3 






i 
C 



Jo 



PUNCTUATION. 

Tf This sign divides sentences. 
♦*♦ is nsed at the end of a period. 



dz 

>r Cll 



Mongolian books are not numbered by 
the page but by the folio. It is usual to 
head each folio by £>, or some other 
mark like this. 



OBSERVATIONS. 



U i 



s 



sh 



w 



Like the Mantshu the Mongolian cha- 
racters are written in perpendicular lines 
from left to right. The Alphabet consists 
of seven vowels, together with diphthongs 
derived from them, and of seventeen con- 
sonants which vary in form according to 
their position at the beginning, the middle, 
and the end of a word; or according to the 
effect exercised upon them by certain orthographical rules. — The consonants are 
not regarded as isolated sounds, but are always joined to vowels with which they form 
simple syllables. An exception is made to this rule when a consonant occurs as the final 
of a syllable or a word. But even such final consonants. may be attended by a vowel. A 
variation of the Mongolian characters is known under the name of Gahk. 



53 



ARMENIAN 



Form 


Name 


Value 


Num.- 
power 


Foi 


m 


Name 


Value 


Num.- 
power. 


11 - 


Jpe 


a 


1 


jr 


iT 


mien 


111 


200 


P> p 


pien 


P 


2 


G 


J 


he or ye 


h or V (in 
' toy) 


300 


4, f 


kim 


k ck 


3 


li 


*, 


1100 


11 


400 


'r * 


tub 


t (soft) 


4 


C, 


i. 


shall 


sh 


500 


h * 


yetch 


y (cons.) 


:") 


II 


n 


wo 


WO(inworcl) 
orO(in move) 


600 


ft 1 


zab 


z 


6 





L 


tchah 


fcch 


700 


I; * 


e 


(in met) 


7 


"'1 


1 


be 


b 


800 


II t 


yet 


6 (in paper) 


- 


.?, 


t 


tche* 


ch (soft 


900 


0* p 


twoh 


t (hard) 


9 


ft* 


«. 


rah 


r (hard) 


1000 


( > ^ 


zhe 


j (French) 


10 


11 


u 


se 


S 


2000 


h /• 


inni 


i (inill) 


20 


a. 


4 


vii'v 


V 


3000 


1, L 


lune 


1 


30 


s 


in 


dune 


(1 


4000 


Y> I- 


khe 


Ch(German) 


40 


p 


c 


IV 


r (aoft) 


5000 


Xr * 


<lzah 


Z ( Italian) 


.-)() 


8 


u 


tzvoh 


tZ (hard) 


0000 


li * 


gh^en 


(hard) 


Co 


i* 


L 


une 


U (in due) 


7000 


,; 4 


kwofa 


h 


70 


<i> 


* 


pure 


P 


8000 


a ' 


tzah 


tZ (soft) 


80 


^ 


* 


!<(• 


k 


11000 


■i, t 


ghahd 


v(Bomaic) 


90 














10000 


A' * 


.)'<' 


j 


L00 


y> 


* 


pha 


f 


20000 



% llll 

L yev 



ju is 

£ lu 



LIGATURES. 
1/5- me 
4 mg 



ivj mi 
i/fr myo 



ith nin 
Jk Ml 



grave 
circumflex 
rough breathing 
^ soft breathing 



ACCENTS and PUNCTUATIONS 
apostrophe 
, comma 

: colon in semicolon 
. full stop 
* hyphen 



sign of length 

sign of brevity and abbrevi- 
ation 

sign of abbreviation, it also con- 
verts a letter into a numeral. 



54 



GEORGIAN. 


I 


The Georgian language is written in two Alphabets. The ancient character, used in the 


Bible and ecclesiastical works, is called Khutsuri (i.e. sacerdotal). The 


character 


MkhedruK (or rather Mkhedruli hlieli i.e. Soldier's hand) is used in ordinary 


writing 


and printing. 




KHUTSURI 


MKHEDRULI 


Form 


Value 


Form 


Value 


o 


Name 


Value 


3 

o 


Name 


Value 


Kx 


a 


bf. 


s 


b 


an 


a 


d) 


un 


00 


^S 


b 


*E 


t 


I 


ban 


b 


H) 




W 


*V5 


g 


OaUIf 


oo 


6 


gan 


g 


"5 


ve 


ve 


S"S 


d 


*H 


V 


<> 


don 


d 


<3 


phar 


ph 


x lt[ 


e 


4> 


p'h 





en 


e 


i 


khan 


kh 


*hy 


w 


+ f 


k 


d 


win 


V 


*? 


ghan 


gh (C Arab.) 


Vb 


z 


n-n 


gh (Arab.) 


% 


zen 


z 


a 


qar 


qt^JjAxab.) 


H 


h, e (short) 


1'J 


q 


8 


he 


e 


3 


shin 


sh 


frm 


th 


vy 


sh 


(X> 


than 


th 


R 


chin 


ch 


*M 


j 


n 


ch 


o 


in 


1 


t$ 


tzan 


tz 


'bin 






(3 


kan 


k 


a 


dzil 


dz 


k' 


Giii 


ts 


















«? 


las 


1 


v* 


thz.il 


thz 


1 


cLJi 


ds 


d 

6 






3 






WA 


m 


Rpi 


thz 


man 
oar 


m 

n 


jar 

khan 


j 

kh (rough) 


in 

5o 


n 

i (short) 




kh 
khh 




ie 
on 


i (short) 



a 
£ 


khhar 

jan 


khh Ci*J t 

rough) 
j 


OjUI 


O 


*s 


j 


3 


par 


P 


1 


hae 


h 


K Un 


P 


%*m 


h (mute) 


d 


zhan 


j (French) 


& 


hoe 


hoi 


H^ 


j (French) 


&J\ 


ho 


6 


rae 


r 


* 


fa 


f 


cMi 


r 


s s 


ch 


I 


san 


s 




















9 


short e 












6 


tar 


1 








PUNCTUATION. 




- Hyphen 


: Full stop 




:• End of a Period 


. Semicolon 




Comma. 





55 



GREEK 



A a 
B 



r 

A 
E 
Z 
II 



£ 

c 

e s e 
i i 



\1 p. 

N v 





? 

(7 C 



<) 

II 

P 
v 

T 

Y u 

$ 9 

X X 

12 ft 



Valiu 



AJpha 

Beta 

Gamma 

Delta 

Epsiloo 

Zeta 

Eta 

Theta 

Iota 

Kappa 

Lambda 

M) 

N) 

Xi 

OmlkroD 

Pi 

Rho 

Sigma 

Tau 

YpsiloD 

Phi 

(In 

Psi 



Omega 



a 
b 

g 

(1 

6 

Z 

e 

tli 

i 

k 

1 

in 

n 

\ 

o 



t 

u 

f pb 

ch 

ps 

o 



OBSERVATION^ 

Y before y ; ""' ln,> ol1 "' 1 palatala (x ^ £) 
is pronounced liken, as iy\ 

t, is ;i mere vowel ami never represents 
tbe consonantal Bound of y. as 'lama 
(I-onift). In foreign words the de- 
Qcient consonanl was replaced bj t, as 

louXio? (Julius). 

a is an initial and medial s. The tinal is 
marked bj tbe sign of?. The latter is, 
in some modern editions, used at the 
end of medial syllables. 

x before '.. followed bj a vowel, retains its 
proper sound ofti, and is not pronounced 
like shi, as faXaua (Ga-hi-ti-a). 



Accents and Punctuation 



SPIRITS or BREATHINGS. 

Every Greek word, commencing with a vowel , has over this 
initial either 

(') spiritus lenis, the soft breathing, 
or (*") spil'itUS asper, the rough breathing. 
The former is aspirated before a vowel and equal to our h. 
The spiritus lenis is placed over an unaspirated initial vowel. 

When a word commences with a diphthong (at, ei, ot, vi, au, 
eu, Tjv, on, gvj), the breathings as well as the accents are placed 
over the second vowel, as auto;, oto?, E?XG)V. p always has the 

rough breathing at the beginning of a word. In the middle of 
a word, when this letter is doubled, the tirst p has the soft and 
the second the rough breathing, as pp. 



ACCENTS. 
aCUiG oi sharp sound. 
grave or beavj Bound. 
Circumflex ,u long and trailing sound. 

tccenu iihined with either of the breathings or with the 

llheresis, are marked in the following manner. 

>i i\ rt <\ 5 « •/• v 



PUNCTUATION a.m. OTHEB MARKS. 

The point and COI a are used in Greek as in English. There 

i- 1 1 • • semicolon, The Colon i^ denoted bj a dol over the 
The note of interrogation i- | : . In some modern editons 
the note of exclamation !) has been introduced. 

The Comma is also used to distinguish two words of equal 
spelling. A- o,Tt, to,te, differing form the particles ott, tot£. 
i^n is termed Diastole or Hyper- diastole. 



This 



Tbe following >i-us are used in connexion with letters and 
syllables. The Apostrophe ,' . the Diaeresis " . over a rowel 

separated from the sound of a preceding VOWel, and the Coroiiis ' 

in contracted words to denotata Crasis as xouvavuov for tc 
s'vavxtov. 



Iota subscriptum is tbe Iota under the vowols y., r), o>, and 
indicates the etymolog] of tbe words. Formerly this t was pro- 
nounced, and had its place liy the side of the VOWel. This lateral 

lota is still used in words spelled with capital letters, as THI 
20<PIA dor if) aoqptqt) "Aid-rj? (a8t)«). 



NUMERALS. 
The Greeks employed the letters of the alphabet to denote the 
numerals, hut as these characters were not sufficient for this pur- 
pose, the s (Bau, Vau) or / (Digamma) was inserted after 
the £, the Lj (KoTCTta) after it, and <TTi (SafXTtt) after to. The 
letters employed as numerals are distinguished by a top line slop- 
ing, to the right as a 1, $' 2, g'G, i 10, ta' 11, x' 20, xs' 26, 
p' 100, a' 200, aX(S' 232 etc. The thousands recommence with 
a, and have a stroke below on the left, as a 1000, ,(5aX[J' 2232. 



56 



GREEK LIGATURES and ABBREVIATIONS. 

contractions are peculiar to old editions of Greek works. They are no longer used in 
modern typography. 



aj 


ai 


® 


elvai 


H 


ov 


& 


on 


av 


av 


6% 


-> 


Cfth 


ovde 


w 


oro 


% 


al 


s 


«^ 


cite 


ovx 


5? 


OTQ 


JVfi 


aXX 


H 


eXJt 




OVTOV 


SU 


OTV 


A 


av 


W 


eXaxxov 


Xjj 


n 


w 


OTW 




ano 
aQ 


cv 


ev 


7Ty 


nay a 
nei 


ov 
aw 

1 


ov 

00) 


ac, 


ag 

3 


iftt 


eneidri 


-3% 


Tie (j 


ra 


autti 


av 
avrov 


■u 


enev 


*& 


ne(jl 


i 


xai 


camS 


avrd) 


«Y 


em 


TlLuU 


7\r\v 


nr 


xalg 


6 


(3 


Sh 


em 


7TG) 


Tin 




Tavra 


F 


7 
ya 

ya{> 


3b 


eon 


7T? 


71Q 


W 


\ei 


ya 


lw 

5* 


ev 
r\v 


7?, 


71Q0 

TJX 


ilw 

T 


T7]V 

ti)v 


J= 


77 

77 

ye 

yet 
yeX 

yell 


Sa 


7W 
7TZt) 


nv 

7103 




Ttjg 
it 


ye 
74 


9* 


$e 


w 


(ja 


r 


TO 


W 


&ei 


& 


Ql 


5 


TO 






Si 

do 


& 

C c 

Gil 


QO 

o 
aa 


o' 

w 
T 


\ 
70 

7W 


* 

^ 


yev 
ysQ 




dv 

x9w 




oavTa 
oe 


TV 


TOV 
TOV 


yrj 


yrj 


n#1 


xai 


<>i 


oet 




TOV 


yt 


7 \ 
yiveiai 


\ 


v 






T 


TOV 


% 




xai 
xai 


alw 


OTj 
OtjV 




TOO 


ytf 


yv 


** 


y.aia. 


c& 


o& 


TT 


yo 

X 


yo 

yv 


3$ 


Kara. 
ecpaXaior 


% 

m 


o&at 

Ol 


TV 
Tit) 
T&f 


TV 

TO) 

i 

TO) 


yd) 


yco 


A 


11 


<nt 


ox 


T 


TWV 


4 


9 


J2? 


judrwv 


05 


oo 


*' 


ralv 


3 


Si 


p 


fjiev 


6 


oo 


J 


V 


5*. 


dev 


f* 


/tier 


OST 


071 


H 


VI 


3KS 

He- 


fo$ 




juevog 


CCCrJV- 


i onav 


uu 


vv 

c 


dia 


fl 


vera 


OS 


oo 




in 
vno 


2&» 


dia 




uerct 




or 
ora 


■^ 


yar 


4> 


dy 


flWV 


& 


ore 


x> 


X* 


ei 


olor 


si 


orei 


K 


XQ 


i 


ei 


og \ 


<pi 


OTl] 


•h 


V'l 



57 



ROMAIC or MODERN GREEK. 

The Alphabet consists of the following 24 letters, which are the same as in ancient Greek. 

A a, B 0, r y, A 5, E e, Z £, H r t , 9 S, I t, K x, A X, M pi, N v, g J, 
O o, n 7T, P p, 2 a (final ;), T t, Y u, * 9, X x, *P vp, O o. 

The vowels are a, £. t) . i, 0, u and u>. 



PRONUNCIATION. 

A a. (Alpha) short or long as in papa. 

B j . (Vita) is represented by 6A or c. In sound it 
differs slightly from the English v , tlie mouth 
being somewhat rounded in the articulation of 
the Romaic letter. 

r "I (Gamma) is an aspirate of ff in go. In yy the 
first gamma becomes nasal; byysXqc, for instance, 
is pronounced ang-ye-loa. It receivea the same 
sound before the palatals /. • and /, as otvarxi] 
(a-nu)i'j-Li). Before z i and u it is like y in yea. 
To produce the sound of our .'/ in ;/r*-i/, the Mo- 
dern Greeks use \'x as I'v.^ir/yj. (Uraham). 

A 8 (Delta) is aspirated as /// in ///«-. 

E z Eptilon) as the « in //<7. 

Z C (Zita) like :. ZuW] (*o-?;. 

H 8 (TTMtaJ like /// in fAfc*. 

I i (lota) like ?' in machine. When i is placed under 
the rowels as In a r ( <;> or by the side of capital 
vowels (Ai, Hi, lit) it is not sounded and only 
lengthens the principal vowel. This i is known 
;n the Iota subacriptum. 

k x (Kappa) like our /.. it is softened alter the 
nasal y henoe arxXtd is pronounced any lid. 

A X (Lamvda) like / in i<>n<j. Belore i it baa the 
sound of Hi in Willi am. 

M \>. (Mi) like ///. Placed before -. these two letters 
acquire the sound of 

combination ol \y~ take- the sound ol b in words 
received from foreign languages, but in com- 
pound Komaic word-, each letter retains it> ori- 
ginal pronunciation. Example tu.-Gpeujia (em- 
- ire -ma). 

N v (Si) is //. Placed before T, the two letters 

coalesce in the sound of </. which is articulated 
somewhat harder than the 8. For example 

UTtpaOl (iliiraiii). •/-', have conjointly the sound 
of j; as v?£aiu (Jami). When the letters v and - 
form part of two syllables in a compound word, 
they retain their natural sound ot nt. For example 

■v-rtuo; (en-timoa). Before the vowel i the v is 

articulated like ni in opinion as vtTTTUi (nyipto). 

2 'C (Xi) iS A. 

() o (Omilron) like o in dot. 

II r (li) like 

V p (liu) like/- in rvit. If doubled, it has a sharper 

sound. 

S j (Sigma) like • in .«»». Before l'» . 1\ A. /. . A. 

M. N. I' and in the proclitics (such M TO'i? -.-j.:) 
before the same consonant-, the Sigma is sounded 
like ; . as 2|iypV7j (Zmirui). 
T t (Taph) is f. 7. sounds sometimes like to, but 
generally like cA, as rCeXeirr,! (chetepis). Words 

With ~C are mostly of foreign origin. 

V 'j (Tpsilon) lik ;/ in Egypt. For example tpofsXiov 
(trie lion). 

0) tt fP*0 like / or ph. 

X / (A7// or CAi) like the German or Scotch ch. 

Before the vowels a, 0, a, it is more harsh than 

before e and i. 
^T 'b (Psi) like pa in gipsy. 
il ui (Omega) is the long o. 

The following are diphthongs at, au, st, eg, t,»j, 
oi and o'j (h). At sounds like e in ethics. The •; 



of 7.'j, £'j. ij'j sounds like 3 before a vowel, or 
the soft and liquid letters (3, y, 6, £, X, "., v, o. — 
oi is like ee and o'j like oo in #ootf. 

The diseresis over the second vowel of di- 
phthongs restores to each vowel its original sound: 
ai, 8.0, ei, (ii are pronounced separately a-i, a-o \c. 

BREATHINGS and PUNCTUATION. 

The Romaic or Modern Creek admits like the 
ancient language two marks over initial vowels, 
namely the Smooth breathing Spirit US tenia ('), which 
is not noticed in reading, and the Hough breathing 
Spirit us asper ('), which in classical Greek takes 
the sound of our A, but is not audible in the 
modern language. The p, as an initial, is invari- 
ably marked with the rough breathing. In double 
p the first has the smooth and the second the rough 
breathing. 

The names of the stops are, 7E>.sior. full stop (.), 
|j.i3'y3 7tyu.7, oolon ("), uitoemYu.7] or bitodiacroX?] 
comma '(,) and nMLSlOV tpu>TT9Su>e Bign of inter- 
rogation (;). The mark of exclamation (!) is 
ran h used. 

To tiie-e signs must be added the apostrophe and 
the diareais. The former (' ) denotes the elision 
ol one or more vowels. EE. g. Bit' Bftiva, dtp' 'i\jy.~ 

instead Of >KQ etc. This elision of vowels' occurs 

even before consonants as '2-' -<', instead otizh to. 

In •/.'// (instead of xai iv) and X«viv»< (instead 

of kn'<. av lv«5) etc. the mark f ) denotes tin- co- 
alescence of vowel- (update) and is called coronis. 
This mark is often used in contractions as ulO'jxo- 

The diasresit 'he union of diphthongs. 

■; no'.cr/Tl/,; sounds bo-y-an- jis. 
Another mark of separation is the diastole (,)j 
which resembles the comma, and is used to dis- 
tinguish the pronoun •', . ~.\ and the adverb -.',, ~i 
lruin the conjunction 5?e and the adverb t<4te. 

A( CENTS. 

The tone is indicated by three accents . namely 
■iiiiilr.v (ittpl9fCUlu.£v7]) " or long accent, the 
aCUte (if Ha}' or sharp accent, and the grave (fiapsi? ) 
or heavy accent in final syllables. Some mono- 
syllabic words, being unaccented, are called atona. 
The cirCUUUtex can only be placed on the ultimate 
and penultimate syllable. When the vowel of a 
final syllable is long, the penultimate vowel can- 
not take the circumflex. A word is termed peri- 
spomenon, when it has the circumflex on its last 
syllable, or if it is a monosyllable and is marked 
with this accent. When the circumflex occurs 
over the penult, the word is properiapomenon. 

The Acute takes its place in the penultimate and 
ante -penultimate syllable. Also on tlie final syl- 
lable at the end ol a period, or when an enclitic 
follows (i, e, a word like iiou, [toi, \xi which throws 
its accent on tlie antecedent). 

When the final syllable is long, the acute can- 
not revert to the ante -penultimate. 

When the acute occurs in a monosyllable or in 
a final syllable, the word is called o.vijtonoii; the 
penultimate, thus accented, is called j/oro.rytonon ; 
and the ante -penultimate with the acute is pru- 
paroxytonon. 



58 



OLD -SLAVONIC (CYRILLIC). 

on the most ancient MSS, and cut under the direction of the I. R. Aulic Councillor 
Dr. Paul Jos. Schafarik at the type-factory of Gottlieb Haase Sohke in Prague. 



Form 


Name 


Value 


Form 


Name 


Value 


A a 


Az 


a 


q> * 


Fert 


f, P h 


K E 


Buky 


b 


x * 


Cher 


kh 


R is 


Vedi 


V 


(0 <*> 


6 


6 


r r 


Glagol' 


8 


(0 © 


Ot 


ot 


A A 


Dobro 


d 


M 'I 


Ci 


ts 


€ e 


Est' 


e 


Y Y 


Cerv' 





m zn 


Zivete 


z 


HI in 


Sa 


s 


S s 


Zelo 


z 


l|l i|i 


Sta 


St. sc 


? 1 


Zemlja 


z 


T> * 


Jer 


— 


H it 


Ize 


i 


11 u 


Jen 


■y 


1 ¥ 


1 


i 


hi hi 


Jery 


5 


I i 


I 


h y 


h h 


Jerek 


— 


K K 


Kako 


k 


H t 


Jet 


e 


II A 


Ljudi 


1 


10 HI 


Ju 


yu 


M M 


Myslite 


in 


IA r\ 


Ja 


ya 


N N 


Nas 


n 


l€ l€ 


Je 


ye 


o 


On 





A A 


IJs 


e 


II II 


Pokoj 


P 


ft * 


As 


a 


p p 


Rci(Reei^ 


r 


lift ia 


J§s 


W 


C c 


Slovo 


s 


Im i;,i 


J as 


ya 


T T 


Tverdo 


t 


3 * 


Ksi 


* 


1i fc 


terv' 


t 


T t 


Psi 


ps 


Q\ o\ 


Uk 


u 


e <> 


Thita 


th 


S » 


Uk 


u 


V v 


lzica 


> 



\ 2 3 
8 = 



•A- •* 

4 5 
S=6 



etc 



NUMERICAL LETTERS. 
Ah *B|. .f|. .^|. -ei- etc. K(Jl- KB- Br- K^- K€- etc 

M M i 3 14 15 21 28 2 3 2 4 25 

C = y=90 f = 1000, E.g. Y 8T^8-=6396. 



Titla (simple 
Dobro -Titla. 



ABBREVIATIONS (In Slavonic Titly). 
~ Glagol'-Titla. 
- Slovo -Titla. 



Onecek. 
Pajerek. 



NOTES. 



1) The power and pronunciation of the accented 
(Roman) characters are sufficiently explained in 
the Polish and Czechian Alphabets. 

2) The alphabetical names have been rectified 
and, as regards the nasals, completed according 
to approved ancient authorities. 

3) The characters are designed to be printed 
without the abbreviations, which as relios of the 



middle ages must be restricted to ecclesiastical 
works. Here they are solely introduced as histori- 
cal forms. The "Pajerek*' is a Jer or Jerek placed 
over a letter. 

■i) As in ancient MSS. the numbers are indicated 
by the insertion of the letters between two dots. 
The •• Titla'* formerly used have thus become un- 
necessary. 



59 



GLAGOLITIC. 






According to ancient MSS (sec. XI — XII) designed by Dr. Paul Jos. ScHAFAR 
of Gottlieb Haase Sohne in Prague. 


iiv, cut a 


the type - factory 


Form 


Name 


Value 


Num : 
value 


Fo|m 


Name 


Value 


Num: 
value 


Cyrill. 


Latin 


Cyrill. 


Latin 


+ + 


Az 


A 


a 


1 


& » 


Uk 


ov 


u 


400 




Buky 
Vedi 


C 

1 


b" 

V 


2 

3 




Fert 


♦ 


f. ph 


500 


% % Glagol' 


r 


g 


4 


la lb 


Cher 


\ 


ch 


600 


&b sb Dobro 


A 


d 


5 


O o 





(0 


o 


700 


3 3 Bit" 


€ 


e 


6 


W w 


Sta 


V 


St 


800 


36 as i Zivete 


as 


z 


7 


V <v 


Ci 


'! 


c 


900 


£ a 


Zelo 


s 


z 


8 


# e 


Cer\* 


Y 


c 


1000 


Qo o> 


Zemlja 


I 


z 


9 


LU III 


Sa 


111 


s 




8 s 


Ize 
I 


H 
1 


1 

j 


10 
20 


E « 


Jer 


1» 


"e 




M AC j 


Den' o. 
Jot 


*,l 


dj, .1 


30 


•8 -8 ! 


Jery 


M 


y 




> h Kako 


k k 


40 


1 . \ 


Jeivk 


h 


i 




Sb sb Ljudi 


11 


I 


50 


A A 


.let 


t 


e. ja 




M « i Mvs!l1 '' 


Ii 


in 


60 


IP IP 

<€ € 


.111 


10 
1 


e 




•P * Kti ii n 


TO 


3€ *€ 


*■ 


.11 


a 




9 t On 


o o 


so 


\iffc 3€ 


Jes 


II 


fa 




F f Pokoj 


ii 


P 


90 


<*e ^e 


.las 


UK 


ja 




b b KVi 


P 


r 


100 


■0- <► 


Thila 


ft 


tli 




2 a SIovo 


c 


8 


200 


ft ft Iziea 


V 


y 




UD oo 


Tvr'do 


T 


t 


300 












NOTES. 






1. The letter Jery is~a compound of /cr and 1*6. 






2. The letters vs — aa and «e — i are duplicate forms. 7g 
to Bulgarian MSS; aa and i are Croatian character 
hand is not a real duplicate form of <{> , it being ident 
is used "instead of (J) . 


and -8 

S. fl. 

ical w 


are peculiar 

on the other 
ith 4. , which 


3. These characters are arranged to be printed without 
are confined to liturgical books. 


abbrev 


iations, which 


4. The numerical power of the letters is indicated by dc 
> •+• -tf- etc. 


>ts on 


both sides, as 


5. Furthe 

letters 


r information on the value and the pronunciati 

is given in the Czechian and Polish Alphabets. 


on of 


the accented 



8* 



60 



CROATO - GIAGOLIT1C. 

Designed from Croatian MSS and printed works by Dr. Paul Jos. Schafarik; cut at the type 
factory of Gottlieb Haase Sohne in Prague. 



Form 


Name 


Value 


Num: 

value 


Form 


Name 


Value 


Num : 

value 


m rh 


Az 


a 


1 


a m 


Uk 


u 


400 


^u ^ 


Buky 


b 


2 


cp « 


Fert 


f, ph 


500 


QD QD 


Vedi 


V 


3 


7b Ai 


Cher 


kh (eh) 


600 


7a 7a 


GlagoF 


g 
5 


4 


Q Q 


6 


6 


700 


Qb Ob 


Dobro 


d 


5 


W W 


Sta 


St 


800 


3 3 


Est 1 


e 


6 


HJ <v 


Ci 


ts • 


900 


ffl] tih 


Zivete 


z 


7 


ft » 


Cerv' 


c 


• 1000 


dB £ 


Zelo 


z 


8 


W w 


Sa 


s 




CfJJ Iff 


Zcmlja 
Ize 


z 
i 


9 

10 


2 Si 


/ Jer 




(' 




a x 


I 


i 


20 


°BB °B8 


Jen 
[ Jerek 








I Derv' \ 

\ e. Jot ) 
Kako 


k 


30 
40 


•B -8 
T T 


y 

e 




ffi [ft] 


Ljudi 


j 


50 


& m 


let' 


e, ya 




Jft m 


Myslite 


m 


(50 


JD jn 


Ju 


yu 




F F 


Nas 


n 


70 


€ c 


F,s 


Q 




2 a 


On 





80 


2€ 3€ 


As 


n 




P |B 


Pokoj 


P 


90 


3E 3€ 


.les 


ye 




B B 


IV ci 


r 


too 


fflC ®e 


Jas 


n 




S Q 


S!ovo 


s 


200 


afln ofja 


Thita 


th 




QD on 


Tvr'do 


t 


300 


& & 


Izica 


y 





NOTES. 

1. These characters- are designed to be printed without the abbreviations, pecu- 
liar to liturgical works. 

2. The numerical letters are distinguished by dots on both sides, as .ih. .t^. etc. 

3. The punctuation is the same as in other languages. 

4. The letters -fi, ae, ac and »e, the forms og and *, together with the combina- 
tions dR8 and °s^, are only found in Bulgarian MSS. The ligature se instead 
of 33 only occurs in Croatian MSS. 

5. The value and pronunciation of the accented Roman characters may be as- 
certained by referring to the Czechian and Polish Alphabets. 









62 



RUSSIAN 



Observations 



CURRENT HAND 



ji final, attended by t», 
sounds very hard. 

accented, sounds like 
the o in go. When unaccented 
it is pronounced like the a in 
far. 

x is a stronger guttural 
than ch in the Scotch loch. 

B, like tz in Fritz. 

m: ordinarily like ch in 
church. In h.to (what) and be- 
fore n it takes the sound of sh. 

m consists of the sounds 
of sh-ch. A notion of its pro- 
nunciation may be formed 
by a connected articulation 
of the letters sh-chi in the 
words English children. 

T> after a final consonant 
produces a hard and ringing 
sound. 

1 is placed at the end of 
words where it softens the 
preceding consonant, and 
adds to it the sound of ye, 
such as is heard in theFrench 
pronunciation of Charle- 
magne. In the middle of a 
word, mostly between two 
consonants, it is uttered with 
a slight sound of ee. 

61 is identical with the 
Polish y, and somewhat like 
the English we, when rapidly 
articulated. 

rfe as an initial like yai. 
The y of this diphthong is 
also sounded in the middle 
of a syllable after n, but is 
scarcely audible after the 
other consonants. 

a This reversed e is the initial of words 
commencing with the sound ai. It occurs in 
foreign words in which it replaces oe. 

m sounds like ew. In foreign words it is 
similar to the French u. 

a when accented, sounds like ya in yard. In 
unaccented initial syllables it sounds ye. After 
consonants it is pronounced like e in met. As 
a final letter it takes the sound of ya in yard. 

e represents the same Greek letter but is 
pronounced like F. In modern derivations 
from the Greek it is replaced by F. 

r only occurs in Greek words. At the be- 
ginning of a word or after a consonant it 
sounds like ee, and after a vowel like v. 

The letters h, c, x,f, do not occur in the 



& m 

A & 
S 8 
M 0€ 
3 3 
.% 14, 
J % 

Jb TV 

3fi j(Ad %uc 

cr © 

.9 % 
c % 



oc a 


A 


<fCS> 


B 


22 6 4 


B 


J 7 Z 


r 


a 9 / 


A 


e e 


E 


Z, *> 


5K 


3 9 


3 


it a 


H 


i t 


I 


ft ft 


K 


Jl u 


A 



7C ft 



o o 



ji n 



•//' 



M H 

H H 

o 

n n 



e c 



y y 

X X 
% % 

h w 

% "6 
3K 61 

£ 6 

% <£ 

WW 
91 J£ 



m ?n T t 



y¥ 



y y 

x x X x 

It, Uf II u 

p ^ 

mm ill ui 



w, w, 



K K 



mm 



€1 hi LI hi 



6 6 



ft fb % % 



to to 



a ji 



K)k> 
a a 



6 

V 



V 



e e 
r v V 



follows: 1) h is replaced by r, as in raM6ypnb 

Hamburg, or it is omitted altogether, especially 



in Latin words as AHHHoa.ix, Hannibal. 2) c 
before e, i, y, sounding like the German z or 
tz, is expressed by n; as IJimepoHX, and before 
o, o, u by k, as Ko.i.ieria. 3) x is expressed 
by kc, as A-ieKCtii (Alexius). 4) / and the 
German v are changed into 4>, as <J>pH4pHXT> 
Frederick. 

DIPHTHONG^ 

Proper diphthongs are only formed*iby the ii follow- 
ing a vowel. This letter receives in .siieh a ease a 
characteristic sign at the top (8). The diphthongs are 

aft eft ift oft yft Lift tft aft toft aft. 
ACCENTS. 



The stress of an accented vowel is indicated by the 

acute (') and the grave ^). The former denotes the 

raising, the latter the depression of the tone. The 

hpv arp rPT»r*"!i accents are only then marked in writing, when cor- 

)et. iney aic lcpiesentea as v udillR forms are t0 be distinguished from one 

i st< in Fanrnrnn. ^v„*i,«.. 



another. 



They are placed over th 

a e h i o y bi -b 



vowels 




63 





SERVIAN. 


ILLYRIAN. 


(Modern 


form, cut by F. Kosch in Leipzic.) 


Nr. I represents the "organic" orthography now 


This language 


is divided into the dialects of the Her- 


used in Roman-Catholic publications ; Nrs. II and 


zegovina, of Bessava and Syrmia. The Servians use the 


III are to some extent current in Slavonia, 


Slavonic (Cyrillic), the Croats and Wends the Roman 


Croatia and Dalmatia. 




characters. 




Cyrillic 


Latin 


Pronunciation 


I. 


il 


III. | Pronunciation 


A a 


A a 


a 


a 


a 


a 




B 6 


B b 


b 


b 


b 


b 


The Vowels a, o, u, i, 


B B 








c 

eh 




e sound as in German or 


V v 


V 


e 


ez 
eh 


Italian. 


r i 






e 




G g 


8 


c 
d 


cs 

d 

dj 


es 
d 

dy 


e as a medial, follows 


4 4 


D d 


d 

dy, Hungarian _;\ 


all the consonants except 
gutturals. It rarely is a 
final letter and never an 


E e 


E e 


e 


e 


e 


e 


initial. Its general sound 


)K )K 


Z z 


j in French 


e 
f 


e i 

r 


e i 

f 
8 


is like ye (in yes). In 
the dialect of the Herze- 


3 3 


Z z 


Z 


govina it has the same 


H H 


1 i 




o 


% 


pronunciation when not 


i 


gj 


gj 


8) 


lengthened , otherwise it 


I i 


1 i 


y 

y 


11 


h 


h 


sounds like ee combined 


J j 


J i 


\ 


j 
k 


J 
k 


with ye, as is heard in 
see yet. Before i, like y 


K K 


k k 


lv 


j 

k 


in ye. In the Syrmian 


A A 


L 1 


1 


dialect it varies between 


1 


i 


1 


ayandee. In theRessava 


Jb Jb 


Lj lj 


ly, itai. gl, gli 


lj 


ij 


ly 


dialect it almost invariably 


M M 


M ni 


111 


III 


in 


in 


sounds like ay (in nay). 
This e is now often spelled 


H H 


N u 


I) 


11 


n 


il 


ie. 


lb H> 


Nj »j 


fl Itul and b'r [)g 








o 


C is like ts in lots. 


U o 


U o 





V 


p 


1' 


c and tj almost like ts. 


11 n 


P p 




Tin' difference between 


P 


r 


r 


r 


these spellings is, that c 


P p 

C c 


K r 


I 


i 


s 


w 3.2 


can be used indiscriminate- 


S B 


S 


s 


si. 


SC 


ly, ami tj only in derived 








\ 


t 

eh 


I 

ty 


words. 


T T 


T l 


t 


l.l 


c like j in jar. 


h h 


C c 


»y. 'j 


u 


u 


u 


dj and gj are nearly 


y y 


U u 


u 


V 


\ 


Y 


like j in jar. 


<1> * 


F t 


f 


z 


z 


I 


lj like Hi in William. 


X x 

n n 


H li 
C c 


II 

Is 


i 

dz 


dx ex 


s 
ds 


nj like ni in opinion, 
s like sh. 






M M 


C c 


eh 


z like s in measure. 


in in 


8 s 


sh 


dz like j in jar. 


mm 


^ 




r lias the power both of a Consonant ami a vowel. 


8 c se 


shell 


As a consonant it sounds as in oilier languages. As 


T> T, 





hardening suffix 


a vowel it tonus a separate syllable arid is pronounced 


bl H 






with a very slight sound of e. The orthography of 


1 i 


ee, French U 


this syllable varies. Some spell it er , the Ragusans 


b b 


— 


softening suffix 


ar. Others omit a and e and simply write r, others 


b u 






again write i\ 


Je je e ie 


ye, ie 








e e 

H) H) 


Je je 


ye 


Accents used in Servian: acute (:); sign of 


Ju ju 


yu 


length (') ; w or ^ sign of brevity. f 


H a 


Ja ja 


ya 




U a 


Dz dz 


j 




e o 


Th th 


111 





64 



WALLACHIAN 



Form 



Name 



51 a 


B £ 


R B 


r r 


A A 


Q € 


m m 


3 e 


3 3 


II 11 H 


f I I i 


K K 


A A 


M m 


H H 


o 


n n 


P p 

c 


T T 


8 6 


X x 


CO (o 


B.9 


III 1H 


4U% 


•B * 


ila a 


H) H) 


M M 


<Tl A 


^ « 


V V 





As 

Buke 

Vide 

Glagol 

Dobro 

Yest 

Sliivete 

Zalo 

Zemlia 

I 

Ishe 

Kako 

Liude 

Meslite 

Nash 

On 

Pokoi 

Rtse 

Slovo 

Tverdo 

Uk 

Uniku 

Pert 

Khir 



Tsi 

Cher 

Sha 

Shta 

Yor 

Yaty 

Yus 

Yu 

Yako 

la 

Ftita 

Psi 

Xi 

Isliitza 

tin 

Je 



Value 



a 
b 
v 

g 

d 

ye e long 

zh 

Nr. G 

z 

i 

y 

k 
1 

m 
n 

o 

P 
r 

s 
t 
u 
u 

f ph 
kh h 

long 

ts 
ch 
sh 
slit 

e short 

ea 

e (utili) 
yu 
ya 
ya 

ft th 

ps 

x 

v i * 

tillginlierm 
J 



Besides the Al- 
phabet on the left 
there are two va- 
rieties of charac- 
ters. 

b (pronounced Eer) 
is appended to a 
consonant at the 
end of a word 
without being 
sounded. In mo- 
dern printing it is 
omitted. 

LI (Yory) is only 
employed in words 
of Slavonic origin. 

\" Ishitza, occurs 
in words derived 

from the Greek. 
After vowels its 
sound is v, after 

consonants i (as 
in Bit). 



SHORT ACCENTS. 

o is placed over 
an initial vowel 
and the diph- 
thong H>. 

y stands over a 

medial and final 

H and over a 

final H). 



LONG ACCENTS. 

" over initial vow- 
els and over K). 

' over medial vow- 
els. 

over the medial 
A and the final 

a, t, *, h. 

~ n over abbre- 
viations and let- 
ters employed as 
numerals. 



Modern Shape 



A 
B 
B 

r 

A 
E 

3 3 

I i 

K 
A 
M 
H 


n 
p 
c 

T 

y 
$ 
x 
it 



III in 

B T> 

ft R 

5 v 



y 

zh 



k 

1 

m 
n 
o 

P 

i" 
s 
t 
u 

f 

kb(ch) 

ts 
ch 

sh 

sht 



ea 

P 
(uuh) 

iin 
J 



& and Y are only 

used in foreign 
words. 



Improved Modern Shape 



Antiqua Current 



A 
B 

B 

r 

D 

E 

J 

Z 

I 

K 

L 



M m 

N n 



X x 

u « 

111 m 

I i 

II u 



A a 

E 6 

B 6 

r v 



D 
E 

J- 

Z z 

I i 

K k 

L A 

M m 

N n 

o 

n a 

P P V 

S s s 

T t t 

Y T u 



a 
b 
v 

g 

d 

ye e 

j (Br.) 



$ <£ # f 



</ v ch 

#/ in sh 

Z t e 

/ i iin 

tf 7/ j 



khfchj 

ts 



APOSTROPHISED LETTERS. 

AaEeJtliOo v 
US D<1 SsTl .1:1 



The Alphabet to the left is used in liturgical and ancient works. With the improved cultivation of the 
language the letters have been considerably simplified, as is shown in the two Alphabets at the right. No 
notice lias been taken here of the ancient names and the accentuation of the letters 



65 



POLISH 



a like a 

\% — ong 

e — e 

e — ie 

S f ~ en S 

i — i 
o—o 

6 — ou 
u — u 
y -- e(ii) 
b - b 
i - by' 
c — ts 

C (■ — tssli 
cz — cli 

(I - (1 

dz — dz 

dz — dzy" 

dz — j 

f - f 

g " g 
h — h(ch) 
ch - kh 

j - y 

k — k 

1 - 1 

LI 

in — in 
in — my' 
n — n 

N n — ny' 
1> - P 
p - P 
r — r 
rz — rsh 

8 — S 

8 6 — sy* j 
sz — sh 
t — t 

W — V 

vv — vy' 

z — z 

Z i — zy- 

Zz Zz — j(Fr.) 



The marginal column shows the pronunciation of Polish letters 
in as far as it approximates the English. The vowels a, e, i, o, 
ou, u, ii in the adjoining column are sounded as in German. The 
following peculiarities must be noticed. 

In addition to the five elementary vowels , common to the Eu- 
ropean languages, occurs y, which is deeper than the i and sharper 
than the French mute e (in poudre, Polish pudyr). As accessory 
vowels of a, e stand the nasals a and e (ong, eng). Before b, p, 
they sound om, but nasally; e, always strongly accented, is an 
intermediate of e and i. In ie, ia, io, iu the i merely indicates 
the softness of the preceding consonant: in fact this i forms part 
of such a consonant. 6 ifl B strongly accented deep o, nearly like 
ii. II<-]]iH.- the Polish vowels descend in the following gradation: 
t, e, (ie), e,g,y, a, a, o.v, u. 

These vowels have a clear and distinct sound, except the i 
which obtains the consonantal force of ?/, when it is followed by 
a vowel and preceded l>y h. c, <l:\ m . n s f), 8, w, z. In this case 
the l is merely the medium of softening the consonant, Ex : biodro 
(loin) sounds byudro. Before t it becomes ie. 

The consonants //. r. d£, m . n . p . g, w, : are attended by a 
slight and rapid articulation of //, as if written by, cy, dzy, my, 
ny. py, .>//. try, :y. Tbcy >tand as finals of words, and also of syl- 
lables followed by consonants, of these letters r takes tbe inter- 
mediate sound of our h and ch. 

e sounds like is in wants. 

cz is our ch, and sz our ,sA. 

di sounds like d& in W(Utd8. 

(Li is like j in jar. 

h is of rare occurrence, the Slavonic h being represented in 
Polish by g. It is as guttural as the German ch, Ex: hultaj 
(a Good for nothing). 

I the virgulated I is heavier than the common /. The middle 
part of the tongue is more raised in the articulation of this letter. 

rz is r blended with z. The r is softly rolled, and its z is like 
the French j. Ex : przy. 

z like J in the French word jour. 

To avoid the accumulation of softening iota- marks of the 
letters b, m, n, p, s, w , z, the following process is preferred. 
Before a vow r el an i is inserted (as bia mia etc.); before T^ibwever 
and before consonants the 20£a-sign is dispensed with ; b, p, w, m, 
lose this sign even at the end of a word. Owing to the diminution 
of the characteristic signs, the letters w,b , p , m,n , s , z deviate 
from the original rule and may be followed by either i or y. 



66 



SORBIAN or WENDISH OF LUSATIA. 

The vowels are: a, 0, u, y, e, i. The union of a and o makes 6; O and u form 6; e and i coalesce 
in e. The semi-consonant j is connected with i; h with e; W with a O u. 

The consonants are divided 1) into Labials w, f, v, b, p, m. 2) Palatals and Unguals 11, 1, l\ 
3) Dentals d, t, C. 4) Sibilants zz,Ss,CC. 5) Gutturals h ch (g) k. 

With regard to their articulation these consonants are divided into broad and slender sounds, accord- 
ing as they are hardened or softened in their utterance. 

Broad sounds: w, vv, b, b, z, z, d, dz, dz, h, g. 
Slender sounds: f, v, p, p, s, s, t, c, e, c, ds, ts, ch, k. 

Between these letters nine intermediates take their place: m, in, n, n, 1', 1, I, r, f. 

The whole Alphabet thus consists of the following 8 vowels and 32 consonants. A (6) o, 6, u, y , e, 
e, i; j, w, w (f, v) b, b, p, p, m, m,n,ri. 1,1, (l'),r, r, z, z,s, s, d, dz, dz, t, c, c, e, 
ts,h, ch, g, k. 

In combining one consonant or several consonants with a vowel to form a syllable, a distinction is made 
between hard soft and neutral consonants. 

At the same time the following rule is to be observed. In the grammatical combinations of structure, 
derivation, declension, comparison and conjugation the vowel y cannot follow a soft consonant, nor can 
e and i follow a hard consonant, whilst the neutral consonants may In; succeeded by either y or i. In 
conformity with this rule are reckoned as 

Soft, j vv v b' p m n 1 r z s c dz c. 
Hard, I r z s d dz t c (h ch g k). 
Neutral, w f b p m n ds ts. 

The letters qu and x, in words of foreign origin, are spelled k\v and ks, as kwadrat, Aleksander, 
kwas. Also g occurs only in foreign words. V and f are found in but few vernacular terms. 

PRONUNCIATION OF THE CONSONANTS. 

The accented characters vv b p m h r differ from the unaccented in softness of sound. Before e 

(acute) e and i this accent is unnecessary , because these vowels are sufficient to soften the preceding 
consonants. 

I sounds like v. In the north-eastern part of the country it is pronounced like a harsh 1. Kui instance 
colo. 

dz as in English, but without a break between the two letters. Example na tidzy. 

dz like g in gentle, as dzera, nadzya. 

z as in English, f. i. zuby. 

z like the s in pleasure, f. i. zolty. 

s like sh, f. i. saty, sery. 

c like ts, as cybac. 
•6 nearly like ch in churn, f. i. ceri'i. 

C the sharpest sibilant like tch in wretch, f. i. corny. 

ds, ts like ts, f. i. tsihac. 

ch is frequently pronounced bard, like c before a , o, u, especially at the beginning of words, for 
instance chory. 

j like y in yes. 

S like z. 

W like v. 

PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS. 



a i u as the vowels in are, here, true. 

e is acute , grave , or long. After c z s it 

O acute grave or lengthened. 

6 deep nearly like u. 

e like ea in dear. 

y deep as ea in dearth. 



often pronounced like y 



67 



CZECHIAN or BOHEMIAN. 


Roman. 


abcdefghchijklmnoprstuvyz — a e i 6 li y — ii — h. 


£ c I) (1 I)' d' G g h K r S s f t f Z z 


German. 


abcbcfgfyc&ijn m n opr f $tut>9j — rictdiip — u — c 


6 c t) i £>' b © cj ri 5Kf © f 3 Sit' 3 * 


q and x only occur in foreign words, qu is generally replaced by kv as kvitance (receipt). Some 


writers one \v for v and ou for an. 


Tin- accented rowels a e i ii y and u are long; 


j like y, as jam pr. yaro " springtime, 


withoul accent their pronunciation is short. 


n before i i. <>r when marked it, sounds like ni in 


8 i i are termed sod rowels. The others are hard. 


opinion. 


h eh k r we hard consonant*. 


in of. 


c 5 <1' j fi i- s t /. are soft . and 


6 as in door. 


1) '1 f g 1 m D p I t TZ are called indednitc 


ou is a diphthong which blends the sound ol o (in 


< onsonants. 


pole With U in put). These vowels retain their 




separate pronunciation iii verbs with prefixed po, 


Tin; FOLLOWING SOUNDS DIFFSfi PR01 


.is poubrati po- u-bra-ti ). 


THE ENGLI8H PRONUNCIATION. 


s (in German type |J, and as a final, 6) like .sli in fish. 


;i sounds like the Srsl a in papa, 


t before i i, or when marked t, sounds like a t with 


a likf a in father. 


which the semi-vowel y coalesces, asTulipan (pron. 




i-le-pas tulip. 


c even before k, sounds lik<- ts, as n< cky nets-ku) 
the tray. 


U as in put. 


r like eh in church. 


li and it long as ni blue. 


(1 before i i or when marked with the liquifying sign 


v hk.' u iii the French pure. 


(d) is Bounded dy. This consonantal y i> softly 


z as in English but. 


blended with its <l, as div or diw pronounced 

dyiv). 

e like e in den. 


/. like b in measure. 


ORTHOEPIC RULES. 


e like a in late. 


l) The vowels with the long accent (') should not 


8 as ye in yet. It can onlj occur after v, f, b, p, 


be lengthened to excess, 


m, n, d, t wiili which it coalesces. As vSk vyek) 


2) The consonants s, s, z, z, become mule before 


a century. 


the affix sky, as vessky. 


ly like a in late followed by y in yet, as woley 


3) The consonant j, as an initial before another 


cull thou). This Qua! y forms a distinct sound. 


consonant, is not pronounced, as jsein. When a syl- 


g as in garnet. It only occurs in foreign words. 


lable ending in a vowel precedes, the j becomes 




audible. 


h aspirated at the beginning and in the middle of a 




word like h in house. At the end of a syllable it 


4) The compounds tc ds and ts are pronounced 


partakes of the guttural sound of ch and is some- 


like c ; ds and ts, like c. 


what softer than ch in the Scotch loch. 


5) Prepositions consisting of a simple consonant, 


ch like ch in the Scetcb word loch, as chleb 


such as k, S, V, Z, although standing by themselves, 


bread). 


do not form a syllable, hut are sounded together with 




the first syllable of the next word, for instance k tobe 


i as in grin. 


S liami. Those unconnected prepositions cannot he 


i like ee in green. 


placed by themselves at the end of a line or a page. 



9* 



68 



6) The auxiliary verb, jsem, jsi, jest-jsme, 
jste, jsou, the conjunctional particles bych, bys, 
by, bychom, byste, by, and the reflective pronouns 
se , si attached to an active participle, are blended 
together in the pronunciation and joined by a hyphen. 
The same is the case when si, se are postpositions of 
nouns or adjectives. E. g. shledani-se,modlici-se. 

7) The soft consonants must be carefully distin- 
guished in articulation from the indefinites, and the i 
i e must properly coalesce with the latter. 

8) The sibilants c s 7, differ from each other as 
well as from csz. 

9) h is never mute. Example hrom (thunder) in 
which the li sounds as the li in the Scotch pronun- 
ciation of which. 

10) The accent always rests on the first syllable, 
as be-zim, pri-nesu. The accented syllable may at 
the same lime be lengthened, as sna-zim, kra-sa. 

DIVISION OF SYLLABLES. 

In words which are difficult to pronounce, owing 
to the complication of consonants, it is of importance 



to ascertain the component syllables. In this language 
most syllables end in vowels. The following circum- 
stances must be noticed in applying this rule, 

1) A consonant placed between two vowels or be- 
tween a vowel and 1 or r, joins the next syllable. 
Example: stra-ka, ba-vl-na. 

2) Of several consonants, followed by a vowel, only 
the last consonant goes to the next syllable; yet sk, 
sk, st, st are not separated but join the next syllable. 
In such instances the preceding syllable is often with- 
out a vowel, while 1 or r forms the medial consonant. 
Example , hrn-cir. 

3) 1, r, r, with a vowel after, are joined by the 
preceding consonant in forming one syllable. To this 
rule n forms an exception. The consonants sk, 5k, 
st, st must without separation be annexed to the syl- 
lalde which follows. Example, kllO-flik, zei-dlik, 
sve-tlo, han-li-vy. 

4) Compound words are divided according to their 
component parts, as ou-voz, na-dvo-ri. 



HUNGARIAN 



The Hungarian language comprises 31 sonants which are expressed by the Roman Alpha- 
bet. Owing to the combinations of some letters the Alphabet is formed as follows: 



a b cs cz d e 



f g gy h 

t ty 



i j k 1 ly m 

11 11 V z zs. 



n ny o o p r s sz 



The vowels a e i 6 u ii, are sounded as in German. With the accent at the top the 
vowels d e i 6 li u are lengthened. 

The combinations cs cz gy ly ny sz ty zs represent single articulations and are inseparable 
in spelling. 

cs sounds like ch as Jcocsi. 
cz » » ts as czuhor. 

gy » » di in the French word Dicu , as gydr. 

ly » » il in the French word email, as homdly. 

ny » » m in opinion, as anya. 
sz » » 6' as szag. 

ty » » ti in the French metier as tyxk. 

zs » » j in the French word jow as ssdk. 
With regard to the consonants is to be noticed that. 
j is pronounced like y in yes, and 
s like the English ,s7> , as sat;. 
The letters c ch q iv x are only found in foreign words, for instance Cato . Achilles, 
y does not represent an independent sound, but simply helps to soften the antecedent 
letter. Nevertheless in Old-Hungarian words y and eh are employed as independent letters. 
The former then sounds like i in it, and ch as in church. For example Palff'y. Forgach. 

The compounds cs and cz are often denoted by ts and tz. Modern Orthography rejects 
this spelling except in words where the t is radical, as baratsag (not baracsag). 



69 



LETTISH. 

The Lets have adopted the following 22 letters of the German Alphabet, 

abcbjeg^iiflmnoprfstutog. 

The c and i) are only used in combination with ] to express the sounds of [eft and fd). 
The I; moreover serves to lengthen the vowels. The German consonants h d) f D never 
occur in Lettish. Nor are 8 and ii in use. The cj r. ty are represented by tW, H, t. 

By means of the 22 characters the following 34 simple sounds of the Lettish language 
are formed. 

aBBjbeggVjt! '!4t(f&«t mj n n ^ o p p\ v v m 

f bf fd) bfdj f (9) fcf) t tfci) u to toj v 

PRONUNC TATION OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS. 

a C i 11 are short. When lengthened they are marked thus. 

d e i u 

The is always hmg, nevertheless it receives the lengthening mark to distinguish the 
accented ch and 6 from the lighter e. 

PRONUNCIATION OF THE DIPHTHONGS. 
There are six diphthongs in this language, at ait ci ci ui cc. The first five arc pro- 
nounced as in German. Although at and ci are naturally Long they occur with the circumflex 
at ci. The diphthong oi only appears in the word hum. When an and ui are to become 

separate syllables the 11 and i arc marked with the diseresi8, ail, lit'. Peculiar is the sound of 

cc; it passes from the articulation of cc (such as is heard iu the German word 3ee or in the 
English word say) to an intermediate sound, such as is heard in the second a of advantage. 

( 0N8ONANTS. 
The following letter.- have the English sound, 6 b 1 m n p 1 1. The j it a consonant like our 
y; to sounds as b, and ^ like to. The labials 6 in p to may be followed by the modifying j, 
which like the Russian i. , helps to soften the consonant and causes a slight i to ring 
after it. It cannot be separated from the consonant nor uttered as an independent letter. 
I n r are virgulated as l n r. instead of being followed by ). Besides these letters the follow- 
ing four are virgulated. 

g like the German F before c and i; 3 is like f before a It. 
f hard like k in king, f BJ C in ennte , cut. 
f , sharp like our 8. IS the final of this sharp f. 
f is soft like our 3. 

bf form an inseparable sound like the .-oft Italian ~. 

fd) sharp like the Russian 111 and the English s/t. The virgula of f and fd) does not 
indicate the sound of an inherent j. It only helps to distinguish the sharply pro- 
nounced consonant from the soft f and fd), the latter is pronounced like the Russian 
Ai or the French J in jour. 
tfci) is like the English ch and bfcf; like g in gentle. 

PRONUNCIATION OF SUCCESSIVE CONSONANTS. 

Two or more Consonants, joined together in one syllable or in two syllables, must be 
so articulated that each should retain its original and independent sound. The it is some- 
what modified by the (j and f. It being assimilated with these letters, its sound is like 
that in the English words .sing, .sink (not as in tingle, tinkle). When g and t are marked 
with the cross -stroke the 11 is likewise virgulated, and is then pronounced in accordance 
with the foregoing rules. 



70 



GERMAN 



UO ^vc- 


% a 


a 


■4Z~ 


di 


n 


11 


^ ^ 


$ a 


ii 


& I 


23 b 


b 


y^ 


D 








^ J 


6 


6 


<Z>&^ -i^ 


© c 


c 


?7 


$ 


P 


P 


91 JL. 


ft ii 


ii 


/^>J/ ^l/ 


2) b 


cl 


9 T 


a 


q 


q 


< 


$ 


eh 




<g e 


e 


<M „ 


9t 


r 


r 


./ 


cf 


ck 


S f 


f 


/ 


6 


f « 


s 


/ 


ff 


ff 


/ /: 


@ 9 


g 


<% y 


2 


t 


t 


'T*' 


ft 


fi 


f/ 


§ 5 


h 


,•>/£ -*-»-• 


U 


it 


u 


/ 


P 


fl 


? ^ 


3 i 


i 


/& ~ 


$ 


t) 


V 


y; 


U 


si 


?r 


3 i 


j 


/M?^ 


2B 


to 


w 


/ 


ff 


ss 


<#rj 


$ I 


k 


f 7 


£ 


J? 


X 


/ 


ft 


St 


£f j 


2 I 


1 


9 


9 


y 


ft 


sz 


yffl~r 


Tt m 


in 


2r 


3 


5 


z 


/ 


6 


tz 



The vowels arc: a a c i i> u ii. The diphthongs 
or compound vowels are: ai ci cut an eu; all other 
letters are consonants. 

Simple vowels. 
Every vowel, followed by two consonants, is short, if 
followed by only one consonant it is long. 

21 is pronounced like a in the English word father. 

21 ii is pronounced like a in the English ^ord late. 

d c is pronounced like ein the English word let. 

3f i is pronounced like e in the English word me. 

D is pronounced like in the English word hope. 

£) b is pronounced! like eu in the French'word seul. 

11 U is pronounced like 00 in the English';word roof. 

it it is pronounced like the French u. There is no 
corresponding sound in the English language. 

5) h has the sound of the German i, by which 
it is generally replaced. 

Double vowels. 

The double vowels aa, ce, 00, are no diphthongs, 
because only one letter is sounded, and the second 
serves to indicate that the syllable is long. 

ic is pronounced like ea in the English word meat. 
Diphthongs. 

In the German diphthongs, the two vowels must be 
sounded one after the other, but so quickly as to 
form only one syllable. 

at and ei are pronounced almost alike, and have 
the sound of the English t in the word fire. 

CM is pronounced like ou in the English word home. 

tilt and ett sound almost like ;oy in the word joy. 

Consonants. 

The pronunciation of the consonants differs but 
little in the two languages; the learner should no- 
tice the following peculiarities. 

6 c before ci c and i is pronounced like is. 

Before a u, before a consonant, and at the end 
of a syllable it is pronounced like /.-, by which in 
most cases it may be replaced. 

61) at the beginning of a word is pronounced 
like k, except in words derived from the French, 
in which it retains the French pronunciation. 



In the middle or at the end of a word d) has a 
pronunciation quite peculiar to the German language, 
and more or less guttural, but for which no corre- 
sponding sound can be found in English ; it is like 
the Scotch ch in the word loch after a u au , but 
softer after a c i ii iiu eu. and alter a consonant. 

&)$ or d)f is pronounced like r when these conso- 
nants belong to the root or radical syllable. 

But the d) preserves its guttural pronunciation, 
when it stands before the 8 or j by contraction or 
in a compound word. 

W n at the beginning of a syllable is pronounced 
like "the English g in the word i/ood; but between 
two vowels, in the middle of a word and at the end of 
a syllable it has a sound like the d\ only much softened. 

After it at the end of a word it' is pronounced 
like a very soft k. 

$ t) is always aspirated at the beginning of a syllable. 

The aspiration becomes however almost imper- 
ceptible before a final e. 

After a vowel or a t. the b is not pronounced, 
but, only indicates that the syllable is long. 

$ j only stands at the beginning of a syllable 
and is pronounced like the English y in the word yet. 

fl replaces the double F, and is pronounced short. 

£M qu has the sound of ke in English. 

<B f $ at the beginning of a syllable is pronounced 
like the English s, at the end of a syllable however 
like the English s. 

The longfis placed at the beginning and in the middle. 
g only at the end of syllables. If in an uninllected word 
there are two f one after another, (hey are written ff. 

ff is only placed at the end or in the middle of 
syllables, has the sound of the English ss. 

Sd) fd) is pronounced like the English sh. 

ft and \p are pronounced like st and *p in Eng- 
lish; but in some parts of Germany thev pronounce 
ft at the beginning of a word like sM", and ft> like shp. 

& t> has die sound of /'. 

233 to is pronounced like the English v. 

3 5 is sounded like ts. 

t) replaces the double 5 and is pronounced very hard. 



71 



DANISH 



% 


a 


2fo 


a a 


23 


6 


a 


c 


$ 


b 


@ 


e 



8 f 

© g 

§ f> (haa) 



3 i 




3 i 


(Jod) 


jv t 


(kaa) 


8 i 




3W m 




91 it 




o 




«P p 




q 




91 r 




© f 


3 


X t 




U u 




8 D 


(we) 


X s 




9 t 




3 3 




TfSct 


(a) 


2) 13 


(o) 



The Danish language forms part of the great Gothic family and derives 
its origin from the ancient Norse which once extended over the whole of 
Scandinavia. Hence it is closely connected with modern Icelandic and 
Swedish, more distantly with the German, Dutch and English languages. 
In its further development it has embodied a variety of terms from the 
French, Latin and Greek. 

The Alphabet consists of the adjoining 28 characters. 

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS. 

The simple vowels are 

a aa e i o u to cc « 

They are long as in &tat (the a as in star) Jiaab , $3eeit, Mib , or short 
as in Stab, Sfallb, &eb, 53tb. The vowels e i U I) e have an open sound as 
in %itt, ®tgt, gobt, or a close sound as in ftreb, ftrib, gob. e t u, as long 
middle vowels, are doubled unless the word ends in to b g to, as ©teen, £3eeil, 
Wtatli. At the end only the e is doubled, as lee, fee. The other vowels at 
the end of a syllable are always long, as £aa, @tt , $fo , and often add a 
mute e, as ftaae. In inflections the reduplication of the vowel ceases, as 
ApllltS, £>llfe. The vowels <r v cannot be spelled ae OC to is pronounced like 
the French if, not like the English y. Ex: s ?)itbe. aa mostly sounds like a 
in warm. In modern times a has been adopted for aa, and o for the open u. 
For the deep pronunciation of this vowel, the mark has been retained. 

A.8 diphthongs are reckoned at et ot 01 9\ an eit Clt lli. Some grammarians 
only admit the following six, at ail et eil Oil et. The pronunciation of these 
vowels consists ill a rapid blending of their respective sounds. 



CONSONANTS. 



The consonants are 



&cbf8&iflmnj>qr«ftt>$a. 

According to the organs of speech they are divisible into: 1) Linguals 
b 1 1 it r. 2) Labials b to to f m. 3) Palatals g t q j. 4) Sibilants f j. 5) Aspi- 
rate fy. In the dialect of the Juts the 1; is aspirated before j and to. fc b g 
and to are softened to such a degree as to become frequently inaudible. 
After a vowel or when placed between two vowels b is pronounced bl) (like 
the Anglo-Saxon 0" or the English th in smooth). Double b has a similar pronunciation, lb 
and itb sound like 11 and nn. In rb the b has a very soft sound. Also before g the b loses 
part of its force, and it becomes inaudible before t. j sounds like y in yes. to sounds like 
the English c. 

The following letters are peculiar to foreign words. 1) c before a it or a consonant, 
is pronounced as in English; before e i to Of 0, it is like s. tf) is like k. 2) q, followed by to, 
sounds like kv. 3) 3 is like dz or tz, and sometimes like the English z. 4) r in the middle 
and at the end of a word is like gs or ks. As an initial it is almost as soft as z. 
Combinations of letters, ff fi ft II ff ff f( ft. 



72 



SWEDISH. 

The Alphabet consists of the following 28 letters, 

Aa Bb Cc Dd Ee Ff Gg Hh Ii Jj Kk LI Mm Nn Oo 
Pp Qq Er Ss Tt Uu Vv Xx Yy Zz Aa Aa 06. 

PRONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS. 

The vowels a u a are hard, and e i y a 6 are soft. The vowels a i u sound as in 
German or Italian, a is like a in bare, a like o intone. The e sounds as a in ale. 1) when 
forming an independent syllable, Ex: e-vig (eternal). 2) at the end of a syllable, Ex: ande 
(spirit). 3) In many monosyllabic words, inflections, derivations and compounds, e sounds 
like ai in air. 1) before/ g Imn r, when the next syllable of the same word is a consonant, 
as efter (after). 2) before j as nej (no). 3) in many monosyllables, as elg (elk). These rules 
have many exceptions, o has two sounds, 1) nearly as in move, when it constitutes a syllable 
by itself, or at the end of a word; also before the radical m, in nouns and adjectives; in 
all derivatives of words ending in o; before x and in various other forms of words. 2) o has 
a lengthened sound before a final /, and a sharp sound (as in not) before m n p r t. — 6 is 
mostly lengthened (nearly like the French eu in leur) as do (to die), or the sound is sharper 
and quicker, as for (for). 

There are no diphthongs in this language. 



b retains its ordinary sound. 

c before k stands for kk. Before h it only 
occurs in the Swedish word Och (pro- 
nounced ock). Before the soft vowels it 
sounds likes, before the hard vowels like k. 

d sounds like our d. Before t like t. As a 
final after n almost like n. Before j it is 
silent. 

/ as in English. At the end of a word like v. 
In the middle of a word before v of the 
same syllable, also after Zand r, it is mute 
Ex: kalfven (pron. kalven). f and v of 
separate syllables retain their original 
sounds. Ex: drifted (= driv-ved). 

g 1) as in good before a hard vowel, before 
i and e in a sharp unaccented syllable , at 
the end , and before a consonant of the 
same syllable. 2) like y in yes, before the 
soft vowels , and after I and r. Ex : ge (like 
ya). Of this rule there are some excep- 
tions. 3) like ck when a t follows. Ex: 
sagt (=sackt). 4) like ng when a syllable 
ends in gn, as vagn (pronounced vangn). 
5) before j it is mute. Ex : gjort (vr.jort). 

h is aspirated, before j and v it is mute. 



CONSONANTS 
j 



like y in yes. After/ m n p thej is clearly 
articulated and the preceding consonant 
has a very slight pronunciation. As a final 
letter it is somewhat like the German ch. 

k 1) as in English. It is subject to the same 
rules as g. 2) before the soft vowels it 
is like our ch. In Jcjortel the k sounds 
like t. 

I before j is mute. 

m as in English. The final m sounds like 
two m in those radical words which, on 
being inflected, are spelled with double m. 
Ex: lam (pron. lamm). 

q with r after, sounds like At. 

r and s as in English, stj, sj, skj like vh. 
sk before soft vowels is likewise pro- 
nounced as sh. 

t as in English, tj like ch in church. Hon. 
with a hard vowel before it, like schone, 
and after a consonant like shone. 

v as in English. The word von is pronounced 
fori as in German from which language it 
is borrowed. 

x is like ks. 

Z is pronounced like s. 



73 



ANGLO-SAXON. 

The Anglo-Saxon language developed itself from 
the Low -German (Old-Saxon) idiom, which was in- 
troduced in England by the Saxons in or before the fifth 
century. In the ninth century this language was cul- 
tivated in writing, and obtained currency through 
the agency of laws and translations. In the eleventh 
century, with the overthrow of the Saxon dynasty 
and the commencement of the Norman rule , French 
became the language of the court and of judicial pro- 
ceedings. The knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language 
was confined to the dependent classes and to the re- 
sidents of convents. In the thirteenth century, when 
this idiom once more became popular, il had received 
such an amount of foreign elements, and had lost so 
many native characteristics, that it could only be con- 
sidered as a mixed dialect, out of which the modern 
English language was gradually forme. I. 

PRONUNCIATION. 

a e i o u have the same sound as 
in German or Italian. 

y has the same force as in Eng- 
lish. 

te sounds as a in that. 



The Consonants have the following 
peculiarities of pronunciation, 

c is in all instances hard like k. cw 
stands for kw. 

f between two vowels or as ,i final 

letter is pronounced like v. 
g is always like the modern g in 
go. Occasional!] j ocean instead 

of g. This letter takes the sound 
of y in yes. 

eg is used instead of gg. 

h is a strong aspirate. As a final 
of a syllable and before I eon- 
sonant ii resembles the German 
eh. 

h\v answers to the English \vh. h 

is also found before the liquids 

I, n, r. 
w sometimes precedes r and I. 
J) (tha) hard, like th in thick. 
<5T (elh) soft, like th in this. Usually 

|> is the initial and eV the final of 

a syllable. 
-] and y stands for and. 
j} stands for pa^t. 
I stands for 0(5"<5Te. 



The accent (') over a vowel denotes its length. In 
words of equal spelling this accent points out the 
difference of sound and meaning. For instance ac 
(otlf, eke) ac (oak). The elision of in and n is indi- 
cated by a short line (-) over the antecedent letter. 



A a 


a 


Bu 
Cc 


b 

c 


Db 


d 


6e 


e 




f 
g 
h 


I 1 


i 


lik 


k 


LI 


1 


CDm 
Nn 


m 
n 


Oo 





Pp 


P 
r 



IRISH. 



sr 


s 


Tc 


t 


Uu 


u 


VP 


V 


X DC 


X 


yy 


y 


Zz 


z 


B s 


dh 


M> 


th 



It has been a subject of learned discussions whe- 
ther the Irish in the I'agan period made use of the 
ancient alphabets, which arc known by the name of 
Ogham, and are preserved in some sculptured mo- 
numents and in various MSS. With the introduction 
of Christianity and the spreading of conventual edu- 
cation the subjoined Alphabet was formed, which is 
still employed in antiquarian publications and in some 
works intended for the Irish people. At the. present 
time the Irish language is frequently written and 
printed in Roman English) characters. 



91 <X a 


2i)itj m 


Bb b 


N rj n 


G C c k 


Oo o 


to-o d 


Pr> P 


e e e 


H\i r 


Vr t 


s r b 


3 5 8 


Zz t 


1 ) i 


li V U 


1 I 1 


1)1) b 


LIGAT 


URES. 



Irish MSS. contain contractions of which Ihe following 

are the most usual. 



r 


chd 


4© 


adfa 


4$ 


e 


<? 


air 


4 


an 


«>* 




A 


am 


7 


agar 


4 


ar 


l> 


V w 


6? 


v w 


op 


b 


cc 


g 


c 


ch 


T>f 


d 


cr 


d 


% 


ea 



6JX) ea 
3c g 



o 


^ n 


ft, ft 


i 


h) 


11 


ii)b 


in 


U)Y~ 


in 


* 


w 


tro 


n 


A 


nn 


V 


f 


w> 


1) 


it* 


IT 


r 


h 


n 


SI 


o 


h 


er 


t 


cc 


d 


n 


i 


^■x> 


i 


Vr6e 


ie 


y • 




M5 


l 



10 



74 



GOTHIC 



Form 



Num: Ligatures and 
Value ° , 

power ! marks 



Observations 



B 

r 

6 

u 
z 

h 

1 1 

R 
A 
H 
N 

q 
n 
n 

s 

T 

Y 



a 
b 

g 
d 

e 

q 

z 
h 

dh( b ) 

k 

1 

m 

n 



1 
2 
3 
4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

20 

30 

40 

50 

60 

70 

80 

100 

200 

300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 



LIGATURES 

of frequent oc- 
currence in the 
Skeireins. 



"~f) for hT 



m 
b& 



— Hj\ 
— Mil 

— I1R 

— NH 

— NiV 

— NS 



The Gothic language was in ancient times . 
spoken by the eastern Germans who were de- 
signated by the collective name of Goths. It be- 
longs to the Indo-Germanic family, and as a dead 
language, it has been remarkably preserved in 
the most ancient relic of Germanic literature. It 
is the first of the sister- languages that was com- 
mitted to writing, and has thus reached us in its 
original purity. Although the relics of Gothic 
literature are very scanty, for beyond the frag- 
mentary version of the Bible and the so called 
Skeireins, we possess but insignificant remains, 
there is enough matter extant to afford a perfect 
insight into the grammatical structure of the 
language. 

The Gothic Alphabet has the adjoining 25 let- 
ters. Their names are not known, as the lan- 
guage was not cultivated by native grammarians. 
The invention of the Gothic characters is attri- 
buted to Ulphilas. 



MONOGRAMS. 

Tri 

for matpaius 
for markus. 



NUMERICAL 
FIGURES. 



To distinguish the numerical letters from the 
other characters, the sign or' 'is placed 

above or below the number. In these cases the 
diaeresis over the i' is omitted. Such letters receive 
a characteristic dot on the right and left. In the 
Neapolitan copy two dots, in the shape af a colon, 
are placed on both sides of the letter. Instead 
of dots the upright circumflex is I sometimes to 
be found, 



•B- 



(2), :n:(40), sq^ (60). 

The "catchword" is likewise enclosed 
tween upright circumflexes, as sGs. 



be- 






90 
900 



ORTHOGRAPHICAL SIGNS. 
1. Diacritical signs only occur in the 
diveresis over the initial I. 

2. Punctuation. As a general rule the single stop represents the brief pause, and the 
double stop a longer pause. Yet this punctuation is not consistently carried out, such signs 
being often introduced without purpose, and contrary to the sense. After a long pause a 
blanc space is left. In the other parts of the text the words are all strung together without 
division, and sometimes the new sentence is placed in an other line, in which case the 
initial letters are preceded by the sign ■ * or ■ ~^. 

3. The division of a word, written in two lines, is often made without any rule, and 
merely to fill the vacant space. The separation is in rare instances indicated by a hyphen, 
which then is marked at the beginning of the new line, and not at the end of the preced- 
ing one. 

4. Quotations are distinguished from the text by the single upright mark S or the double 
^. This mark is continued in the margin before all the lines which co ntain the quotation. 

In the Skeireins , which has single marks of quotation, the sign *^ r ^' is superadded 
in the first line, and the sign * . in the last. 

5. Abbreviations. The elision of n is marked by ' ' or " \ and m by ' ■ ' or 
*"=*•. These signs are generally used at the end of a line, when there is not enough space 
for the letters, but sometimes they also occur in the middle of a line. Real abbreviations 
are in some instances indicated by the sign s before and after the word, but generally the 
signs ' — ', " ' or k ' are employed. 



75 



RUNES 



Form 


Name ' 


Value 


Num: 
power 


V 


Fe 


f 


1 


n 


Ur 


U . 


2 


i> 


Thurs 


til 


3 


H 


Os 





4 


k 


Reid 


r 


5 


Y 


Kami 


k 


G 


* 


Hagl 


h 


7 


k 


Naiul 


n 


8 


1 


Is 


i 


<> 


/I 


Ar 


. a 


10 


H 


Sol 


s 


11 


t 


Tyr 


r 


12 


1 


Biork 


1) 


13 


h 


Laugr 


1 


1-1 


Y 


Madr 


in 


If) 


i 


Yr 


y 


1G 



Observations 



The adoption of the Norse Runes takes its 
origin in remote antiquity, and probably belongs 
to a pre- christian period, as is suggested by a 
variety of coincidences, although hitherto no 
positive proofs have been discovered in the 
Runic stones, by which those monuments might 
be connected with the prevalence of paganism. 
As is the case in the Greek, Gothic and other 
alphabets, the Runic signs represent both 
letters and numeral;;. These characters, 16 in 
number, bear peculiar names, and appear to 
have been arranged in an arbitrary manner, no 
attention having been paid to the mutual rela- 
tion and transition of the several letters. 

The Runic characters were divided into 
three classes, in which the letter w headed the 
first series, )k and "T each of the other two 
series. These three divisions were therefore 
respectively named Freys-aett (Frey's family), 
J 'Iiijils -actt and Tyra-aett. It is obvious that 
these letters could but imperfectly express the 
variety of sounds. There was only one sign 
for g and /,-, d and t, b and p, u v and y. It 
is most curious that the connective e and 6 are 
omitted in this system. The latter vowel is 
replaced by an, and tbe former by «, a, ia and 
ai. Instead of fl and yh the h is occasionally 
employed, while u might serve as the substitute 
of o, of the vowel i/, of the diphthongs ae, au and 
Cy, and even of the consonants V and/. Yr was 
equivalent to final r (of the same value as or 
and nr), and as such it was called out. When the insufficiency of the Runic alphabet 
was more sensibly felt, four additional letters were adopted, namely c, g, p and v. Their 
names were no longer in conformity with the 16 archaic characters. Nor were new shapes 
given to these Kunes. The simple expedient of adding one dot or two to the kindred letter 
was considered sufficient; therefore these sign bear the name of shmgnar rimir (dotted 
runes). The old letters adapted to this purpose are i, k, b and/. When the Roman cha- 
racters, along with the u.-e of paper and parchment were adopted in the North, the Runes were 
increased by the addition of tl/i, </, ae, oe, ite, and subsequently by the superfluous letters 
C, q, X and z. The latter signs may be regarded as spurious augmentations of the Runes. 
The .same criticism seems to hold good in reference to the three double runes, by which 
the numerals were increased to ninteen, and beyond which the numeral system of the Runes 
does not extend. 



The ',) double -runes are 



/f" al, Avlaugr. 17. 
>f< mm, Tvimartr. 18. 
(p tt, Belgthor. 19. 



To express the subsequent numbers, several Runes were combined. 

^ (= twice ten) denoted 20.^^ = 21, ^l) = 22 and so on. 



76 







RUNES 










compared with the Gothic Alphabet of Ulfilas. 




Northern 
Runes 


td 


Golden 
Horn 


Anglo-Saxon 


Alphabet of Ulfilas 


r 


fe 


f 


Y 






r 7 


feoh 


f 


I s 


faihu 


9 


n 


ur 


U V 


n 






n a 


ur 


u 


n 


urus 


01) 


V 


turs torn 


t># 


v 






► 


torn 


P 


4> 


faiirnus 


^r 


4* 


6s 





i* 


P 


a 


^ 


OS 





^ 


ans 


a 


n 


reid" 


r 


R 


fc 


r 


k 


rad 


r 


P 


raitfa 


? 


Y 


kaun 


kg 


< 


< 


c(k) 


khh 


cen 


c (k) 


R 


kaunzama 


k c «'y x) 








X 


X 


a 


X 


gy fu 


g 


r 


giba 


Y 








P 


l> 


V 


r 


wen 


w 


YV 


vinja 


v u 


*HN 


hagal 


h 


H 


HH 


h 


NN* 


haegl 


h 


h 


hagls 


h 


+ h 


nau* 


n 


+ 


\ 


n 


+ 


nyd 


n 


u 


naups 


V 


1 


is 


i 


I 


I 


i 


I 


is 


i 


i 


eis 


l(TjU6 Si) 


\A 


ar 


a 


S 






<j> + 


ger 


ge l-y) 


Q 


j£r 


t 


(A) 


(F) 




% 






\ $ 


eoh 


eo 


z z 


iuja 


I («) 








H 






w 


peor<Y 


P 


n 


pairpr 


7T 








W 






Y 


eolhx 










H 


sol 


s 


<> 


* 


s 


h 


sigel 


s 


s£H 


sojil 


a : 


t 1 


tyr 


t d 


t 


t 


t 


t 


tir 


t 


T 


tius 


T 


* 


biarkan 


bp 


* 






* 


beorc 


b 


B B 


bairika 


P v 








M 


M 


e 


M 


eh 


e 


t*(~) 


aihvus 


7) (t sat as) 


YCp 


ma&r 


m 


M 


Y 


m 


M M 


man 


m 


n 


manna 


P- 


r 


logr 


I 


r 


r 


I 


r 


lagu 


l 


A 


lagus 


X 








o 


♦ 


gg(ng) 


5 


ing 


ng 


x + 


iggvs 


x M 








£ 


M 


d 


M 


daeg 


d 


& 


dags 


o (* 








(M) 


* 





* 

* 

3£M 


e<3rel 

ac 

aesc 

yr 

ear 

ior 

calc 

stan 

gar 


e ae 

33 

y 

ea 
io 

St 

g 


Q 


opal 


w o ou) 



WRTNTED BY F. A BROCKHAUS, LEIPZIG. 



Lb S 



1 



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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




003 202 389 7 % 




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m ■ 



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